The British Museum has announced that it is lending the Cyrus Cylinder to the National Museum of Iran. Together with two fragments of contemporary cuneiform tablets, it will be the centrepiece of an exhibition that celebrates a great moment in the history of the Middle East.
In a statement released today, the British Museum said that although political relations between Iran and the UK are at the moment difficult, the Cyrus Cylinder will after all be send to Tehran, where it will be on display for four months.
One of the chief tasks of our generation is to build a global community, where peoples of differing ideologies can live together in respect and harmony, said Karen Armstrong, author and commentator on religious affairs and a British Museum Trustee.
At a time of political tension, it is essential to keep as many doors of communication open as possible. We all have much work to do to build a peaceful world. This cultural exchange may make a small but timely contribution towards the creation of better relations between the West and Iran.
Objects are uniquely able to speak across time and space and this object must be shared as widely as possible.
In 2004, Neil MacGregor, Director of the British Museum, wrote in ‘The whole world in our hands’ that the Cylinder may indeed be a document of human rights, and clearly linked with the history of Iran, but that it is in no real sense an Iranian document: it is part of a much larger history of the ancient Near East, of Mesopotamian kingship, and of the Jewish diaspora. According to McGregor, it is one of the British Museum’s tasks to resist the narrowing of the object’s meaning and its appropriation to one political agenda.
The two fragments of tablet that will accompany the Cylinder were also found in nineteenth century British Museum excavations in or near Babylon.
These fragments were identified by experts at the Museum earlier this year as being inscribed with parts of the same text as the Cylinder but do not belong to it. They show that the text of the Cylinder was probably a proclamation that was widely distributed across the Persian Empire.
Originally, the Cylinder was inscribed in cuneiform and buried in the foundations of a wall after Cyrus the Great, the Persian Emperor, captured Babylon in 539 BC. It stayed buried there until it wasdiscovered by an excavation team from theBritish Museumin 1879, which brought the ancient document to England. Cyrus’ Cylinder has been in London ever since.
The clay document records that, aided by the god Marduk, Cyrus captured Babylon without a fight. According to Cyrus (this part of the document is written as he himself is speaking)he abolished the labour-service of Babylon’s free population and restored shrines dedicated to Marduk and other gods. He also repatriated deported peoples who had been brought to Babylon; the decree that allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild The Temple.
It is because of these enlightened acts, which were reasonably rare in antiquity (and quite the opposite of Nebuchadnezzar’s behaviour), that the Cylinder has become a symbol of tolerance and respect for different peoples and different faiths.
You could almost say that the Cyrus Cylinder is A History of the Middle East in one object and it is a link to a past which we all share and to a key moment in history that has shaped the world around us, comments MacGregor, referencing the museum’s ‘A History of the World in 100 Objects’ project.
Objects are uniquely able to speak across time and space and this object must be shared as widely as possible, he adds.
The BBC has officially announced its TVschedule for this autumn and winter, promising its audience a big focus on history, with new programmes and new presenters. What to expect from the Beeb this autumn and winter, when the rain and cold keeps you locked into your home?
The autumn & winter 2010/2011 programming includes ‘Behind Closed Doors’ with Amanda Vickery, ‘The Do-Gooders’ with Ian Hislop and programming to mark the Battle of Britain’s 70th anniversary, with a drama-documentary based on Geoffrey Wellum’s book, First Light.
Ancient history specials served on these coldand dark winter nights will be ‘Pompeii’with Mary Beard, ‘Ancient Worlds’ with Richard Miles, Neil Oliver’s two-part ‘History of Ancient Britain’ and a look at Holy Land archaeology.
In the West, the term “civilisation” has been consigned to the museum display case. Embarrassed by its chauvinistic and elitist connotations, we have increasingly taken refuge in more politically correct and soft-focused terms such as “culture” to explain human origins. ‘Ancient Worlds’ seeks to rescue civilisation from its enforced retirement and celebrate such a hard-fought invention. Expect stunning locations and bold propositions about the origins of human society.
In ‘History of Ancient Britain’ he embarks on an epic quest through thousands of years of ancient history to tell the story of how Britain and its people came to be.
The first part of the story takes him from the glacial wasteland of ice-age mammoth hunters, through the glories of the Stone Age, to the magnificence of international Bronze Age society. Neil travels the length and breadth of the British Isles exploring some of its greatest wonders and revealing how science is solving mysteries while getting hands-on experience of ancient technology.
Tapping into the latest discoveries and experimental archaeology, History Of Ancient Britain Part I gets under the skin of this mysterious world, the lives of the people who inhabited it, and the tipping points that changed their lives and made ours. History Of Ancient Britain Part II will continue the story through the Iron Age and the Celtic kings to the Romans.
In a dark cellar in Oplontis, a suburb of ancient Pompeii, the remains of more than 50 victims of the eruption are put under the microscope of forensic science. The remains are submitted to a barrage of tests that, together with a fresh look at other finds in the city, unlock a valuable scientific snapshot of Pompeiian life and there are some surprises in store.
The programme features a visit to bars, baths, brothels,dining rooms and an ancient cesspit, where viewers can see what really went through ancient digestive tracts and learn about Roman hygiene: We can see ever so clearly where the water comes into the pool, but there isn’t a single place where it can go out. Make sure you don’t go to the baths if you have an open wound. You are likely to die of gangreen if you do.
‘The Bible’s Buried Secrets’ with Francesca Stavrakopoulou
Hebrew Scholar Francesca Stavrakopoulou examines how recent archaeological discoveries are changing the way stories from The Bible are interpreted and how these, in turn, are forcing a re-assessment of the understanding of the legacy of Judaism, Christianity and Islam both in the Middle East and in the West.
In thenew three-part series ‘The Bible’s Buried Secrets’, Francesca travels to major archaeological digs throughout the Middle East to investigate the origins of the story of the Garden of Eden, the emergence of the worship of one God and the historical context of King David – and his wondrous kingdom.
She also visits Khirbet Qeiyafa (a fortified city in Judah from the time of King David), the ancient city of Ugarit in Syria (considered to be the single most important biblical archaeological discovery of the last century) and the Tell es-Safi/Gath excavations (blogging here).
Following Francesca on her journey through some of the world’s most beautiful but inaccessible landscapes, The Bible’s Buried Secrets aims to place some of its most iconic stories into a new historical context.
A promising menu for those dark winter evenings, don’t you think? Hot choco and BBC iPlayer, here I come! No need to wait until winter for excellent history documentaries in the UK.For this month’s rainyevenings, you can settle down in front of the TVandswitch to‘King Arthur’s Round Table Revealed’, whichpremiers on History ChannelJuly 19th. For a truly historical docudrama, trytuning in toChasing Mummies. Really, the destruction of Atlantis isn’t nearly as devestatingly shocking asZahiHawass’ rage: “Nobody talk! Nobody talk! NOBODYTALK!!!”Just quoting! We’re happy for you tochat, and look forward to your opinions on theBBC’s upcoming ‘authorative history’ programmes. Everybody talk, ! 😉
In the 1880s, a time of great opportunities and great adventures, the University of Pennsylvania Museum organized America’s first archaeological expedition to the ancient Near East – to Nippur, a promising but far-flung Mesopotamian site then within the vast Ottoman Empire, now located in Iraq to the south of Baghdad. Nearly 130 years and 400 archaeological and anthropological expeditions later, the museum returns to ‘the Age of Exploration’ and their first Near Eastdig with the exhibition’Archaeologists and Travelers in Ottoman Lands’ (September 2010 to February 2011).
‘Archaeologists and Travelers in Ottoman Lands’ offers a gimps at the accomplishments, struggles, and fortunes of three adventurers whose lives intersected at Nippur: Osman Hamdi Bey, archaeologist, Director of the Imperial Ottoman Museum, and internationally renowned Turkish painter; John Henry Haynes, American archaeologist and photographer; and Hermann Vollrath Hilprecht, a German archaeologist, Assyriologist, and professor at Penn. The year 2010 marks the centennial of the deaths of Hamdi Bey and Haynes, and the demise of Hilprecht’s career due to scandal after he was accused of tampering with cuneiform inscriptions and withholding the finest discoveries for his personal collection. (Read up about the scandalin this excellent 1910 New York Times article about a dispute that continuously involves more and more persons, who originally had nothing to do with it. )
The Penn Museum’s exhibition sheds light on some of the late 19th century’s diplomatic obstacles and opportunities for ambitious archaeologists seeking to establish excavations in distant lands. As one of the most ancient Sumerian cities, Nippur was a prime choice for a major excavation, but it also posed major challenges. Located in the hard-to-reach marshes of southern Mesopotamia, the site offered a harsh climate, and was surrounded by warring tribes.
Despite these, over the course of years, the excavations at Nippur provided archaeologists with a wealth of new information, and a trove of artefacts, including more than 30,000 cuneiform tablets, among them the largest collection of Sumerian literary tablets ever found. The cuneiform tablets formed the basis of the Penn Museum’s Babylonian Tablet Room and collection. Today, scholars continue to draw upon this vast core of material to develop an online dictionary of Sumerian, through the ongoing Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary Project.
‘Archaeologists and Travelers in Ottoman Lands’ features two 19th century oil paintings by Osman Hamdi Bey: Excavations at Nippur, which has never before been on public exhibition, and At the Mosque Door. Also on display are about 50 photographs, many by Haynes, whose contributions as an archaeological photographer are only now being recognized, and more than 40 artefacts from the Nippur expedition (1889-1900), including a full-sized “slipper” coffin, incantation bowls (inscribed with spells to perform protective magic), figurines, and numerous clay cuneiform tablets bearing some of the earliest writing in the world.
Archaeologists and Travelers in Ottoman Lands opensSunday, September 26, 2010 and running through February 6, 2011 at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Admissionis $10 for adults; $7 for senior citizens (65 and above); $6 children (6 to 17) and full-time students with ID. Amission is free to Members, Penncard holders, and children 5 and younger.
My generation has grown up almost exclusively exposed to war in the Middle East. Two wars in Iraq, one in Afghanistan and countless battles between neighbouring nations in the region. The Middle East has been a battleground since time began – and now you can see exactly who has conquered it through the ages with mapsofwar.com‘s great-looking 90 second walkthrough.
The Byzantines and Sassanids then conquered various parts of the Middle East, until the rise of Islam resulted in the Caliphate around the 6th and 7th centuries AD. Great leaders such as Saladin and, of course, Genghis Khan, then stamped their mark on the continent before the Middle East moved out of the ancient period. The map is a great way to see how the world’s greatest empires have evolved over time. Let’s face it: there are much worse ways to spend 90 seconds!
The ancient Spice Route (probably named as a result of the ancient Incense and Perfume routes) was an epic journey which initially began in Arabia, but eventually evolved to link Moluccas (the Indonesian Spice Islands) with Arabia and from there into Europe.
The route generally is believed to take in Malacca, Sri Lanka, and Kerala in India. At Kerela, it split into two, with one route to Europe going via Baghdad and the other Accra.
Arabia had the monopoly on the spice route for over 2000 years, and its said that both the Roman invasion of Persia in 24 BC and the discovery of America are partially attributed to Europeans wanting to break that monopoly.
The Spice route was initially an overland route but it later developed into a marine route. This resulted in Alexandria becoming a major port and the naming of its Pepper Gate entrance as a consequence.
Now I should imagine the route is predominately an airborne one, but visitors still go to these places, both for trade and holiday purposes.
Spices in Antiquity
The ancient Egyptians used spices in their embalming process as early as 3000 years BC and in 2600 BC, records indicate labourers building Cheops great pyramid were fed Asiatic spices to give them strength. Hatshepsut also brought aromatic herbs and spices back from Punt (modern Ethiopia/Eritrea).
Archaeological evidence in Syria suggest cloves, which could only be obtained from the Moluccas, were popular in Sumeria (circa 2400 BC) and there are even biblical references to the Spice route, with Joseph (he of the coat of many colours) being sold to a spice caravan by his brothers.
The Route in Arabia
Perhaps the Nabateans can be credited with developing the first spice routes circa 950 BC when they began trading with India and China using camel and donkey caravans. These early routes focused on getting incense, perfumes and other spices that could bypass the Persians then be sold to the Greeks.
This route began in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula, where some of the finer perfume and spice plants were already being grown. The spices then travelled north, following a route parallel to the Red Sea. There are reportedly approximately 65 resting stations along this section.
At Dedan, in Northern Saudi Arabia, the route divided with one veering north eastward, towards Mesopotamia, and two others towards the sea. These second two deviations ultimately brought the perfume, spices and incense to the Nabatean capital, Petra; one continued inland directly to Petra while the other went southward to the port of Leuce Come, on the east shore of the Red Sea. From there this route continued by land to Petra.
Once in Petra, the route splits again with one route heading north to Damascus, and the other heading west. This western route went through Israel to Gaza and from there to Egypt or to Greece and Rome in Europe.
There were two routes through Israel to Gaza; one taking in points at Moa, Mahaml, Avdat and Haluza and a secondary route via Hazeva, Mamshit (Mampsis) and Beersheba. This has been approved, recognised and acknowledged as the World Heritage Perfume Route by UNESCO since 2005.
Places to Visit
Travel in Saudi Arabia is can be difficult, particularly for single women, so perhaps its best to start at Petra. This magnificent rock city was the main point for spices arriving from the Far East and I assume, it was here traders would decide on what was to follow the northern or western routes.
There are specialist operators offering tours which take in the points of the Spice route in Israel and Jordan. Given the terrain and location of some of these sites, many of these tours, are done predominantly in 4x4s and involve camping (or glamping if you’re lucky). Along the route, as well as major towns, you can see the ruins of stopping stations for the camel trains, (known as caravanserais or kahns) as well as army outposts usually built on hills to protect the caravans with their valuable cargos.
Although the ruins at Moa, Katzera and Ein Saharonim are minimal, the surrounding scenery is stunning. You can often get glimpses of desert wildlife at Ein Saharonim which boasts of being the deepest point in the Ramon Crater.
For more substantial remains, Avdat is definitely worth a visit. Situated 650m above sea level, some of its impressive structures include walls, pillars and Roman baths, Shivta has impressive arches and other structural remains.
Quite a few of the structures in Halutza were destroyed at the end of the Ottoman period, but you can still see walls and building remains.
Route via Hazeva, Mamshit (Mampsis) and Beersheba
Although Mamshit was quite a small city, it is one of the best preserved in the area.It has a bath house, and mosaics can be seen in the church.
Sometimes known as the capital of the Negev, Beersheba is a vibrant modern city. Excavations of the remains of ancient Beersheba began in earnest in the late 1960s and visitors can now see well preserved buildings such as houses, stables (or storehouses) and an altar.
Although it would be nice to visit the final part of the Spice route in Israel, currently the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office advices against travel in Gaza.
Alexander was born in Pella, modern-day Greece, in 356 BC. His father Philip II was already one of the Macedonian Empire’s greatest kings, and was determined that his son would make the nation even greater. A rigorous education ensued, during which Alexander was even afforded personal tuition at the hands of Aristotle. Soon he was a feared military man and canny diplomat, and was handed power aged just 19 in 336 BC upon his father’s death.
Brandishing a terrifying army and unrivalled oratory skills Alexander forced his way past the Persians into Egypt, Mesopotamia and Bactria, but stopped short of conquering India. Nonetheless by his death Alexander had built one of man’s largest empires, and with it immortality.
Alexander conquered lands such as modern Iraq and Afghanistan with incomparable ease. His army were never left untrained or poorly-equipped – a residue from his father’s reign. Yet there was another reason other than the spread of empire that Alexander advanced so far east, stopping only at India. His empire fed on taxes from newly-acquired peoples, so expansion was crucial.
The Economy
Philip II of Macedon left Alexander a huge amount of national debt, helped in no way by the voracious appetites of his military. Because he needed money to bribe and appease his way eastwards, high-ranking officials and noblemen were instead given land and taxes in lieu of payments. As in today’s economic meltdown, Alexander was pledging the future of his empire, and by the time of his death that empire was descending into turmoil.
Still, noblemen were not allowed to run riot, and there are several instances where Alexander came down extremely hard on those he thought to be milking his economy a little too much. God only knows what he’d have done if one of his courtiers had spent his war chest on a duck house or a moat.
Education
Alexander had a profound effect on education throughout his conquered lands. Greek culture was already world-renowned when he came to power, but he made it a priority to spread the word by establishing wider democracy and building theatres, gymnasia and commerce.
Alexander’s exploits were even the foundation for the European Renaissance some 1,500 years later thanks to the mixing of Arab and Greek literary works. He even built the city and chose the site on which the legendary Library of Alexandria, the pantheon of ancient intellect, could be founded.
Foreign Affairs
Alexander’s view towards foreigners was a paradoxical one. He may have pre-dated the civil rights movement by over two thousand years with his famous speech at Opis (later Ctesiphon) in 324 BC, in which he noted no distinction between Greeks and barbarians, and that the best will govern regardless of their race. Yet Alexander’s armies maimed, killed and destroyed their way past continents of nations pursuing Greek domination. Thus it could be said that Alexander’s foreign affairs motto was something like, I accept anyone, as long as they agree with me.
Other Policies
One unsung policy Alexander introduced was to make shaving of the face compulsory among his men for the first time in history. He believed this would increase chances of survival in battle as enemies couldn’t pull on their beards during battle.
Fearless globetrotters or carpetbagging looters? Whatever your opinion, Britain’s adventurers during the Age of Exploration, from the opening of the world’s first museum in Oxford to the King Tut tomb raid, changed ancient history forever. The Ancient World in London is reaching its climax, and over the course of our video series I’ve seen most of the city’s stunning treasures, from the Knidos Lion to the Assyrian Lion Hunt. So here’s a top ten greatest Age of Exploration personalities. If you think I’ve done well, or if you think I’m more inept than a boxer’s tear ducts, have your say in the comments box below.
Amelia Edwards represents so much about the Age of Exploration. A talented writer from the tender age of seven, she led the suffragette movement back in Britain whilst founding two of the nation’s most important archaeological societies. Fascinated from a young age by ancient Egypt Edwards set off for Cairo, without male company, in 1873 aged 42. She would soon witness the glamour and history of the Nile, chronicling her adventures in a number of books including A Thousand Miles up the Nile, in 1877.
Edwards became distressed at the lack of care given to Egypt’s ancient monuments, some of which she had had a hand in excavating such as the temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel. So in 1882 she brought together archaeologists like Flinders Petrie and Gaston Maspero to form the EEF Egypt Exploration Fund (now society). Her influence over the fund weakened over the following decade thanks in part to rows with the British Museum. Yet Edwards was keen to help still, and founded a new museum at University College, London, installing Flinders Petrie as its first professor, whose name the museum would later take. Edwards died later that year, yet her contribution to Egyptology is one of the most vital in history.
8. Charles Newton
Newton’s name might not feature in many top ten lists of famous archaeologists, but his greatest discovery propels him rightly into the big-time. After working at the British Museum for over a decade, Newton spread his wings and became vice-consul at Mitylene, capital of the Greek island of Lesbos in 1852 and tasked with exploring the coasts of Asia Minor. After excavating at Knidos Newton stumbled across his greatest achievement in 1856-7 by discovering the remains of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world(play a seven wonders quiz here).
Newton’s later legacy would be played out back in Britain, where he had a key role in founding the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies (known as the Hellenic Society), the British School at Athens and the Egypt Exploration Fund. Newton was later instated as professor of classical archaeology at University College, London for eight years between 1880 and 1888.
Leonard Woolley is one of Mesopotamia’s greatest archaeologists, having excavated many of its most illustrious sites. Woolley became assistant keeper of the Ashmolean Museum in 1905, yet found his calling several years later when he teamed up with T.E. Lawrence, aka Lawrence of Arabia, to explore the Hittite city of Carchemish. Woolley’s adventurous life would then see him incarcerated as a POW in Turkey from 1916 – 18 during a British Museum expedition to Palestine. The BM and Penn Museum then commissioned Woolley for his greatest expedition, to the ancient Sumerian city of Ur in modern Iraq. Woolley excavated several royal cemeteries, the most glittering of which was that of Queen Pu-Abi. He took his bounty back to Britain, where most of it can be found in the British Museum.
Woolley soon had a knighthood under his belt, and shifted his sights to the Syrian city of Al-Mina, exploring links between the empires of the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. A number of books then cemented his place in archaeological history, and Agatha Christie even based Murder in Mesopotamia on Woolley’s work.
Arthur Evans has to go down as a true great of archaeology: not only did he discover one of the most famous sites in ancient mythology, but he also rediscovered an entire civilization and its two languages. Evans was well educated in England before adventuring in Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1875, where he and his brother Lewis were imprisoned for making sketches in politically sensitive areas. 25 years later Evans would satisfy his love of travel and history when he purchased the archaeological site of Knossos in Crete. Evans had soon excavated the site’s famous palace, whose maze-like structure has led it to be suggested as the home of the mythological labyrinth in which King Minos held his deadly minotaur.
Evans concluded from Knossos that there must have been a culture on Crete even earlier than fellow great Heinrich Schliemann had claimed, creating the concept of the Minoan Civilization. And 3,000 tablets Evans excavated from the area became his next focus, as he began trying to decode their strange languages, which he noticed bore more than a passing resemblance to the Phoenician alphabet. These languages became Linear A and Linear B, great examples of which can be found in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford.
Lord Carnarvon was a hedonistic English aristocrat who, amid his love for travel and fast cars, managed to spare a few moments to become one of Egyptology’s biggest names. Badly injured in a car crash in Germany, Carnarvon was ordered to eschew the cold winters of Britain for Cairo’s arid heat. But whilst in Egypt, he developed a taste for its history, and was soon spending his fortunes excavating some of the country’s greatest treasures.
It was Carnarvon’s meeting Howard Carter that changed his legacy in Egypt. Together the pair would form a close bond: Carter the avid archaeologist, Carnarvon the immeasurably wealthy adventurer. Carnarvon would fritter away his fortune in the desert, selling country manors (not Highclere Castle, mercifully) to fund houses for himself and Carter and an army of local workers. But the gamble paid off in 1922 when he and his friend discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun, the most famous archaeological breakthrough in history. Carnarvon would soon be dead, the victim of the ‘Curse of the Mummy’, aka a mosquito bite. Yet his posterity was secured: Lord Carnarvon was the epitome of an English adventurer.
Another gallavanting eccentric, it seems Henry Layard was born to live out a dramatic life. His family were immensely rich and powerful, allowing young Henry a platform to pursue his passion for travel and culture. He studied in Italy, France, England and Switzerland before qualifying as an attorney in 1839, aged 22. Layard wasn’t overly interested in law though, and trapsed off towards Ceylon, modern Sri Lanka, where he could use his father’s contacts to get a job working for the civil service. YetLayard’s love of ancient history got the better of him, and he spent several years exploring the Near East with friend Edward Mitford. Soon the pair had reached the Iraqi city of Mosul, where Layard noticed a suspiciously man-made protrusion coming from a mound.
Work in Constantinople followed, yet Layard could not take his mind off the mound and convinced diplomat Sir Stratford Canning to fund a Mosul excavation in 1845. Canning’s gamble paid off asLayard pulled hundreds of reliefs, statues and other treasures from the site, which he would later announce as the ancient Assyrian city of Nimrud. Layard’s name was made, and subsequent missions saw him unearth the fabled Assyrian capital Nineveh, where he found the amazing Lion Hunt reliefs. Every find was recorded in minute detail with accompanying line drawings, and later work for the British Museum saw Layard trying to decipher cuneiform, the first ever written language.
It’s difficult to think Carter without mentioning Tutankhamun, and it’s admittedly thanks to the discovery of the boy king’s tomb in November 1922 that Howard Carter makes it so high up this list. But there was much more to the man than KV62: Carter had been an archaeologist for over 30 years before his fateful collaboration with Lord Carnarvon. Carter began his career in Egypt in 1891 aged just 17 as a tracer and artist for the EEF, drafted in primarily to draw animal images found on tombs. Yet his reputation for a studious individual soon saw him one of Flinders Petrie’s apprentices at Amarna, learning the skills of the trade and discovering the wonder of ancient Egypt.
By 1899 Carter has become First Chief Inspector General of Monuments for Upper Egypt, a title given by the Director of the Egyptian Antiquities Service, Gaston Maspero. Yet this position lasted only a short while, and Carter found himself frozen out of affairs after an incident with a drunken French tourist. Carter’s career was in tatters, and he made a living drawing pictures for tourists on the Nile. It wouldn’t be for another decade until Maspero introduced Carter to Carnarvon and the Tutankhamun saga began, ending in the greatest discovery of all time. The rest, as they say, is history, and Carter died in London a hero in 1939.
Yes, the ‘Father of modern Archaeology’ only makes it to second on my list; roll on the dissent. Flinders Petrie, born in Charlton in 1853, was afforded a good education and from an early age thought logically and meticulously about his interests. Upon hearing the Brading Roman Villa had been excavated with shovels, Petrie was horrified and vowed to install his own methodology to archaeology. His sights were turned first to Stonehenge, then to the famous Giza Plateau, where Petrie became the first person to properly record the pyramids’ geometry and study minute details to explore how they were built.
His reputation already growing, Petrie set out for the delta city of Tanis, where Amelia Edwards and the Egypt Exploration Fund allowed him 170 workmen. Petrie didn’t disappoint, and though he didn’t make any huge discoveries his precise methodology allowed him to recover thousands of smaller everyday items, which would have likely been lost otherwise. Further groundbreaking work was carried out at Sehel, Fayum and Palestine until Petrie made arguably his greatest discovery: that of the Merneptah Stele, aka the Israel Stele, at Luxor. It is the oldest mention of Israel by far, and proves Israel was a culture over 3,000 years ago. Petrie may not have made the same headline-grabbing finds as his contemporaries, but his acute way of working revolutionalised archaeology, and made people interested in the daily life of ancient Egypt.
You might wonder why a circus strongman-cum-archaeologist who graffitied his name on Egypt’s greatest landmarks is ahead of all these famous names. But read that sentence back and I’m confident you’ll agree with me: Giovanni Belzoni is one of archaeology’s oddest characters, and his life story needs no hyperbole.
Ok hold your breath: Belzoni was born in Padua in 1778, yet left home for a monastic order in Rome aged 16. But to avoid arrest after a revolution in Italy he fled first to the Netherlands, then to England in 1803 where he met his wife Sarah Bane. At 6ft 7inches Belzoni found work in London as a circus strongman, named the ‘Patagonian Samson’, before working for antiquarian Henry Salt moving objects in Spain, Portugal and Sicily. Belzoni became obsessed with ancient culture, and after meeting an Ottoman emissary in Malta, travelled to Egypt where he met Salt again, who employed him to remove artefacts like the Colossal Bust of Ramesses II. Yet Belzoni wanted to make discoveries himself and began excavating.
It was at this time that Belzoni, now enamored with Egypt and growing his beard and wearing local clothing, made his biggest discovery: the tomb of Seti I, with its sarcophagus. The tomb is one of Thebes’ most beautiful, and the sarcophagus would eventually make its way to London’s Soane Museum. Belzoni continued to work as both an archaeologist and a ‘fixer’ in Egypt, helping to bring monuments like Cleopatra’s Needle to London. His second great discovery was the inner chambers of the Pyramid of Khafre at Giza, in which he wrote his name in huge lettering. Belzoni’s life of adventure came to an end in Benin in 1823, after a terminal case of dysentry. Yet his legacy remains in the hundreds of great artefacts he brought to the west. Do you still not think he should top this list?
As volcanic ash from Iceland’s volcano continues to cause chaos, there is news that access to Iran‘s ancient sites could soon become easier. From June to October this year, IranAir plans to operate a weekly non-stop flight from London Heathrow to Shiraz. The Saturday service will operate alongside the airlines existing three-day-a-week London-Tehran service, and see a return Shiraz-London flight offered every Sunday. Internal flights already operate from Tehran to Isafahan, Mashhad and Tabriz, as well as to Shiraz. The news comes at a time when Iraq is also opening up to tourists. When the ash clears, adventurous travellers will also be able to fly directly from London to Baghdad, making journeys from London to the cradle of civilization a whole lot more civilized than before.
The new Iran flight coincides with an aggressive pricing policy by the airline which is intended to further boost interest in family, tourist and business travel to the country. A publicity campaign, run in conjunction with online flight specialists Alternative Airlines, has seen London-Tehran fares offered for as little as 318, inclusive of taxes and charges. The fares will go some way to making some of the countrys key ancient sites including Persepolis and Naqsh-e-Rostam more accessible and affordable for visitors.
Boom in Iran Visitor Numbers
UK General Manager of IranAir, Daryoush Niknam, said the fares reflected increased interest in Iran: “We understand that whilst the demand for air travel to Iran continues to grow in terms of business traffic, as well as leisure and VFR (visits to family and relatives), it is a price sensitive market, he said. Even with our direct flights, we need to establish IranAir as a year-round price competitive airline.”
Managing Director of Alternative Airlines, John Pope, said there had been a sharp rise in online bookings via the IranAir website: We took twice as many online bookings for IranAir in September (2009) as we did in August and then doubled the number of bookings again for October, he said. With these new fares now available for 2010, we are expecting online bookings to continue to grow rapidly.
Tom Hall, of Lonely Planet, which produces a guide to Iran, described the new flights as good news for Irans burgeoning tourist sector.
New air links, especially those going to the heart Irans historical attractions, will help to raise the profile of the country, he said. However, Iran still has some way to go in comparison with destinations like Jordan, Syria and Lebanon in attracting curious travellers. Places like Shiraz, the gateway to Persepolis, Yazd and Esfahan are iconic names for many travellers, but visiting these places still requires an element of consideration and hesitation. This is the next obstacle for Iranian tourism.
Holidaying in the Axis of Evil
Getting a visa is still the biggest headache and remains unnecessarily bureaucratic and complex. Then comes the perception of political instability, which even if not correct puts people off visiting. Finally, theres convincing would-be travel partners and friends and family that going to a country dubbed one of the Axis of Evil is a good idea.
However he said the country had a lot to offer travellers determined to scale these hurdles. Irans mix of near-Asian hospitality and unique history make it a draw, plus theres the added advantage of a lack of crowds visitors can often find that they get to experience key historic sites all on their own. Its also a little-known ski and trekking destination. This is a rare mix for people wanting to travel to it as a stand-alone destination or pass through on an extended overland route like Istanbul to Kathmandu. On the politics front, for many, the cache of visiting such a controversial destination will be part of the appeal, not a deterrent.
Ancient Mesopotamia, which thrived in the area of modern day Iran and Iraq, is considered by many to be the ‘cradle’ or ‘birthplace’ of civilization. The area lays claim to the first written language (cuneiform) and the first cities, and a wealth of stunning artefacts. Sites and artefacts from both countries have suffered extensive war damage and looting, but there have been concerted – even heroic – efforts to retrieve many artefacts and protect what remains. Army sargeant Sgt. Ronald Peters is attempting to map out a plan to protect the ancient archaeology of Iraq, and marine, boxer, Classics scholar and author Matthew Bogdanos has been instrumental in getting thousands of artefacts returned to the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad.
But the history of the Lycian Way is peppered as much with war as it is with romance, and its tumultous history helps make Lycia a fascinating area of Turkey to visit.
The mountainous, rugged territory behind the idyllic coastal scenery isolated Lycia from the rest of Anatolia, making the ancient Lycians fiercely independent and giving them a distinctive place in ancient Anatolian history. This independence caused the inhabitants of the chief city, Xanthos to make a funeral pyre of their own city and burn themselves alive rather than be conquered; first by the Persians circa 540 BC and the second time during the Roman civil war circa 42 BC when the inhabitants of Xanthos refused to assist Brutus.
Thought to be an indigenous pre-Hittite race, the Lycians had their own distinctive language and script and Herodotus wrote they reckon their lineage not by their fathers but by their mothers side.
The Lukkas of Lycia
Ancient Egyptian records referred to the race as Lukka and indicate the Lycians were allies of the Hittites. When the Hittite Empire collapsed, they emerged as an independent Neo-Hittite kingdom.
The Lycians were mentioned in the Iliad as allies of the Trojans, but in the 6th century BC, Lycia succumbed to the Persian Empire. After a little spat with Athens in 429BC, it was mostly left to rule itself during this time.
As an area Lycia organised itself to form the Lycian Federation. This was a democratic grouping, which consisted of 23 voting units and was charged with electing national officials and municipal authorities. These democratic principles are said to have influenced the United States constitution.
Lycia remained officially under Persian rule until it was conquered by Alexander the Great in 334-333BC. After his death, the Ptolemies ruled Lycia and Greek gradually replaced the Lycian language and Greek constitutions were adopted. Antiochus III defeated the Ptolemies in 197BC and he gave the kingdom to the Rhodians. This was bitterly disputed by the Lycians who succeeded in 167BC in having the relegation revoked.
The Lycians enjoyed a couple of centuries of semi-independence and the Lycian Federation came back into prominence.
In the Roman civil wars, after refusing to assist Brutus and gaining favour with Rome, Anthony reconfirmed Lycias autonomy and in 43AD the region was joined to Pamphylia. During this time, Lycias population reached around 200,000.
Legend has it that the Lycian Federation prepared the island of Cedre (Sedir Adasi, also known as Cleopatras isle, situated off Marmaris) for the arrival of Cleopatra. To make Cleopatra feel at home, galleys full of sand was transported from Egypt to be strewn on the shore of Cedra. Analysis has since shown the sand isnt from local strata.
Decline started to set in when the province was divided by Diocletian in the 4th century AD which deteriorated further with Arab raids in the 7th and 8th centuries.
The Chimera and Other Myths
The area enters into many Greek myths. Lycia is linked to Crete as it was ruled by King Minoss brother, Sarpedon, a Cretan exile.
The natural burning flames near Olympos, known as the eternal fires of Chimera, are also thought to be the root of the Chimera legend. This fire-breathing monster, with the head of a lion, body of a goat and tail of a snake terrorised the area and was eventually killed by Bellerophon.
As an aside, the silhouette of the Chimera is the logo for the state-run Petrol Ofisi Turkish filling stations.
Rock Cut Tombs
Much of the Lycian architecture has been overlaid with buildings from the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The most recognisable structures from Lycia are the rock-cut tombs in the side of cliffs throughout the area, such as the ones at Dalyan. Other ‘free standing’ Lycian tombs are said to depict an upturned boat.
There is also the Harpy Tomb which was found at Xanthos. Dating from circa 5th century BC, the marble-reliefed tomb was set on a thick pillar standing over 7m high.
As the original is now in the British Museum, a replica has been placed at the site. It should also be noted, the Trilingual Stele found at Letoon, the spiritual centre of Lycia, had instructions in Greek, Lycian and Aramaic and was crucial in deciphering the Lycian language (read more about trilingual texts and their role in decipherment here).
Lycia is a stunning area of Turkey and is steeped in an amazing, but bloody history. The Lycian Way is a popular destination for walkers who will receive a traditional warm Turkish welcome from locals as they travel the ancient route. My advice is to stay away from the resorts, and wherever possible find a secluded olive grove to contemplate the past of this rugged, but beautiful area.
Its that time of the year again. School is almost out, archaeological field seasons are about to begin and what comes in between? Huge conferences of course! Over the next month there will be three major archaeological conferences taking place in Canada and the US. The American Research Center in Egypt (ARCE) will hold their 61st annual meeting this month in California, and the Canadian Archaeological Association’s 2010 conference will round off the month in Alberta.
The first, and biggest, conference is the Society for American Archaeology (SAA) 75th Anniversary meeting in St. Louis Missouri from April 14-18. More than 3,000 archaeologists from around the world will be packing the America Centre and the St. Louis Grand Hotel for the event. I spent a portion of the Easter Break reading over the research abstracts and can certainly say that the conference offers a wealth of new research. Its difficult to pull out highlights so to speak but Ill touch on a few things.
Polynesians in South America
Polynesia is always a hot topic in archaeology and this conference will be no exception. There are a string of papers that will discuss evidence for contact between Polynesians and the ancient people of South America.
A few years ago a team of researchers presented DNA evidence suggesting that Polynesian chickens wereinNew Worldbefore theEuropean variety. That evidence has not been universally accepted. At this conference archaeologists are hoping to put this debate to rest.
(We) will discuss the evidence from physical anthropology, including both anthropometric and genetic data that may provide conclusive evidence of Polynesian presence in South America and help assess the nature of that contact wrote archaeologists Lisa Matisoo-Smith and Jose-Miguel Ramirez in an abstract.
Thats not all; linguistic evidence of Polynesian/South American contact will also be presented.
Since identification four years ago of three words in two southern California Native languages that suggest prehistoric contact with Polynesia, additional information has started to accumulate from both North and South America writes Kathryn Klar.
Klar will present three new linguistic findings:
(1) a word for “sewn-plank canoe” from the western Patagonian language, Alakaluf; (2) an intriguing set of words for “harpoon” or “spear point” from around the southern Pacific basin (North and South America, and Polynesia); (3) the Quechua word walpa (meaning chicken). The latter is especially important in light of the recent identification of pre-Columbian Polynesian chicken remains in South America.
A side note Heritage Key broke news a few months back that archaeologists have found evidence that coastal South American groups voyaged to the Galapagos Islands before Columbus. No evidence of Polynesians has been found on those islands so far.
Palace Discovery in China
Archaeologists Zhichuan Jing and Jigen Tang are investigating what they say is the largest palace/temple compound ever discovered in Bronze Age China. It dates to the 13th century BC and was found in Huanbei City, a walled urban center in Anyang.
The Shang Period (ca. 1600-1050 BC) is an interesting time-period in Chinese history. The first Chinese writing that we know about (inscriptions on oracle bones) dates to this period. The Shang is also the first Chinese dynasty that archaeologists can say actually existed. There are stories in Chinese lore about a Xia dynasty that precedes the Shang, but researchers cannot prove that it existed.
New Discoveries at Tell Tsaf
Archaeologist Yosef Garfinkel will be presenting the latest research from the site of Tell Tsaf in Israel. This settlement dates back nearly 7,000 years, to the time of the Neolithic. Previous archaeological work has uncovered sizable structures identified as granaries. Garfinkel will be discussing the latest finds.
The accumulation of wealth is indicated by large dwellings, elaborate pottery and exported exotic items from Anatolian, Mesopotamia and Egypt. In addition (about) 140 clay sealings and a stone seal were found, indicating an administration system which was practiced at Tel Tsaf he writes.
What Im wondering is could Tel Tsaf be more of a city than a village? If thats the case well have to re-write the history books. The earliest urban centres are believed to be located in Mesopotamia and Syria, dating back some 5,000 to 6,000 years. Hamoukar is one example of an early city that archaeologists will be returning to this summer.
New Research on Cahokia Rituals
This conference promises to shed new light on the ancient city of Cahokia. It waslocated near modern day St. Louis and is estimated to have at least 100 mounds, and cover an area larger than medieval London! It reached its peak from roughly 1050-1200 AD.
Mound 34 is the topic of several papers. First excavated in the 1950s, Mound 34 had copper workshops nearby and seems to have been a centre of ritual activity. Archaeologists Lori Belknap, James Brown and John Kelly will be presenting new research that will show that Mound 34 is an exceptional place on the cultural landscape (of Cahokia) of AD 1200.
Cahokia, Polynesia, Shang China and the Neolithic Near East are not even the tip of the iceberg as far as this conference is concerned. There are several hundred papers being presented so there will be something for everyone.
The abstract book is being printed and mailed out as Im writing this so we should know details about the papers in another week or two.
Right nowI can say that there willbenearly 100 papersgiven at the conference. There will be numerous research results presented including work at the Senwosret III Pyramid at Dashur, Tell Edfu, the Seila and Meidum pyramids and Pacific Lutheran Universitys work at the Valley of the Kings just to name a few!
Last but not least is the Canadian Archaeological Association’s 2010 conference which is set for April 28-May 2. It takes place in Calgary, Alberta. Featuring over 100 papers the conference focuses on the archaeology of Canada, with a particularly generous helping of research from Western Canada. One abstract I found interesting is that of a burial in Big Trout Lake.
Its interesting that a person in ancient times could get into such a remote area on foot. From what Ive been told, modern day westerners need aircraft in order to do it.
Big Trout is quite an interesting place. To say thatit is a remote part of Canada is an understatement. Its located near the Manitoba border in Ontario’s Far North region. This region is about the size of the entire UK andhas asub-arctic climate, full of mosquitoes. Today it has a population ofabout 24,000 people, most of whom have no access to Ontarios road or rail system. Theymust rely on helicopter or airplane to get out.Trying toleaveon foot/canoe is a perilous journey that involves traversing vast distances of wilderness. Archaeologists Scott Hamilton and David Finch say in their abstract that:
Excavation revealed a Late Woodland archaeological deposit overlying the adult male burial. Pottery recoveries suggest Blackduck cultural affiliation, perhaps its most northerly expression in northern Ontario to date. Its relationship to the underlying burial remains to be determined through radiocarbon dating.
If this burial is Late Woodland it means that it dates to before European contact,roughly 1000 AD, give or take a few hundred years. The Blackduck culture is usually found much further to the south, around the Ontario-Minnesota border.
Its interesting to thinkthat a personin ancient timescould get into this area on foot- modern day westerners need aircraft in order to do it safely. It also raises an interesting question – what was he doing so far north?
I’m hoping that these conferences will be able to answer a lot of questions. Stay tuned to this page for more info.
The British Museum has announced that it is lending the Cyrus Cylinder to the National Museum of Iran. Together with two fragments of contemporary cuneiform tablets, it will be the centrepiece of an exhibition that celebrates a great moment in the history of the Middle East.
The BBC has officially announced its TVschedule for this autumn and winter, promising its audience a big focus on history, with new programmes and new presenters. What to expect from the Beeb this autumn and winter, when the rain and cold keeps you locked into your home?
In the 1880s, a time of great opportunities and great adventures, 
Britain might be staring a hung parliament in the face, but 
Newton’s name might not feature in many top ten lists of famous archaeologists, but his greatest discovery propels him rightly into the big-time. After working at the British Museum for over a decade, Newton spread his wings and became vice-consul at Mitylene, capital of the Greek island of Lesbos in 1852 and tasked with exploring the coasts of Asia Minor. 
You might wonder why a circus strongman-cum-archaeologist who graffitied his name on Egypt’s greatest landmarks is ahead of all these famous names. But read that sentence back and I’m confident you’ll agree with me: Giovanni Belzoni is one of archaeology’s oddest characters, and 
Since identification four years ago of three words in two southern California Native languages that suggest prehistoric contact with Polynesia, additional information has started to accumulate from both North and South America writes Kathryn Klar.
