Tag: Mummy

King Tut suffered ‘massive’ chest injury, new research reveals

A new study shows that Tutankhamun, Egypts famous boy-king who died around the age of 18, suffered a massive crushing tearing injury to his chest that likely would have killed him.

X-rays and CT scans have previouslyshown that the pharaohs heart, chest wall, the front part of his sternum and adjacent ribs, are missing. In Ancient Egypt the heart was like the brain and removing it was something that was not done.

The heart, considered the seat of reason, emotion, memory and personality, was the only major organ intentionally left in the body, writes Dr. Robert Ritner in the book Ancient Egypt.

The new research was done by Dr. Benson Harer, a medical doctor with an Egyptology background, who was given access to nearly 1700 CT scan images of Tut that were taken by a team of Egyptian scientists in 2005. Dr. Zahi Hawass, head of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, gave permission for the work.

Zahi was very kind he let me get access to the entire database of all the CT scans, said Dr. Harer.

It has been suggested that tomb robbers, operating sometime between 1925 and 1968, may have stolen the heart and chest bones. The new research shows that while robbers stole some of Tuts jewellery they didnt take the body parts. Instead they were lost due to a massive chest injury Tut sustained while he was still alive.

This isnt the only medical problem Tut had. In 2005 a team of researchers reported that he had a broken leg and earlier this year an article in the Journal of the American Medical Association revealed that Tut suffered from malaria, something that may have contributed to his death.

Harers work was published in the journal Bulletin of the Egyptian Museum. It was also presented last spring at a conference organized by the American Research Center in Egypt (ARCE). This Thursday Harer was in Canada, giving his findings at the University of Toronto.

Harer specializes in Obstetrics and Gynecology, but also taught Egyptology as an adjunct professor at California State University at San Bernardino, up until his retirement.

1968 – The first X-rays

To understand what happened to Tuts chest we need to go back to 1968. In that year the first x-rays were done revealing that many of Tuts chest bones were missing. They also showed that jewellery, which had been on King Tut when an autopsy was done in 1925, were also gone. This means that robbers got to him sometime between those years.

Harers research indicates that while Tuts jewellery was certainly stolen, the chest bones were already long gone.

The CT scans show, in high-resolution, the edge of what is left of Tuts rib bones. Dr. Harer said that the ribs are very neatly cut and could not have been chopped off by modern day thieves. The ribs were cut by embalmers and not by robbers.

He added that if you try to cut through a 3,500 year old bone it is brittle, before you can saw up through it the pressure on the bone would crack a vast part and you would have jagged edges of the bone, he said.

These are neatly trimmed and the robbers are not going to take the time to try and do a tidy job.

King Tut's mummy, as photographed by Harry Burton, the photographer that for Howard Carter documented the opening of Tutankhamun's tomb. - Image copyright the Griffith Institute More proof that Tut suffered a major chest injury is found in the technique that Tuts embalmers used to take out his intestines, liver and stomach.

In Ancient Egypt those organs were removed after death and put into canopic jars (video: King Tut’s canopic shrine and jars introduced).

Harer said that the embalmers used a transverse incision which was cut into Tut and went from his umbilicus (his navel), towards the spine. They took out the organs below the diaphragm, he said. However they did not go through the diaphragm to extract the lungs – the chest was gaping open, they could just lift them out directly.

Harer says he has never seen another royal mummy cutinto this way. Tut is the only upscale mummy I know that had a transverse incision.

Normally, for religious reasons, there would be a special amulet, an embalming plate, over the incision that the embalmer made.

However, in this case, there is none. Since the body already had a huge opening it would be pointless to suture the abdominal incision and protect, Harer wrote in his journal article.

Also Tut’s arms were crossed at his hips, not at his chest, as would normally be befitting a pharaoh.

Stuffing up Tut

Theres more evidence that Tut’s chest, including the skin, had been gouged away while he was still alive.

When the first autopsy on Tut was done in 1925, it revealed that he had been stuffed like a turkey, filled with what Howard Carter called a mass of linen and resin, now of rock-like hardness.

Harer says that the CT scans show that this material would have been packed from the chest down.

The chest was packed first, and as they did so, they pushed the flaccid diaphragm down they inverted it, said Dr. Harer. However the packing improved the appearance of Tuts chest, the packing restored the normal contour of the chest and then the beaded bib (with Tuts jewellery) was placed on top of it.

When Carter examined the bib he was impressed with how adherent it was. “It was so adherent that he couldnt successfully remove it, said Harer. Carter didn’t hesitate to remove other parts of Tut’s body, he actually hacked off the limbs in order to aid the autopsy.

Harer pointed out that if the bib had been put over Tut’s skin (rather than the packing material) he should have had no trouble with it. If that beaded bib had been placed over skin over the clavicle, the skin would have provided a plane in which the bib could have been easily removed.

Chased by Hippos – Watch towards the end of the video, where you’ll see a hippo ferociously attacking a boat.

What caused this injury?

One possibility that Dr. Harer ruled out is that of a chariot accident. If he fell from a speeding chariot going at top speed you would have what we call a tumbling injury hed go head over heels. He would break his neck. His back. His arms, legs. It wouldnt gouge a chunk out of his chest.

Instead, at his Toronto lecture, Harer brought up another, more exotic possibility – that Tut was killed by a hippo.

Its not as far out an idea as it sounds, hippos are aggressive, quick and territorial animals, and there is an artefact in Tuts tomb which appears to show him hunting one of them.

It would also explain why there is no account of Tuts death since being killed by a hippo would be a pretty embarrassing way for a pharaoh to die.

Hippos kill more people than any other animal, they are the most lethal animal in Africa (if not) the world, said Harer. The victim suffers massive tearing injury and can actually be cut in half. Medical reports indicate that even though they are running away from the hippo they typically suffer a frontal wound.

In Tuts case, if the hippo charged, his entourage may not have been able to get to him in time. If he did have a club foot (as a recent medical report suggests) it would make him the slowest person getting out of the way the easiest person for the hippo to get.

Tut may not have even been hunting a hippo. It may have been that he was fowling in the marsh, just got in the wrong area, and the hippo attacked him.

Still, it’s tempting to imagineTut trying to hunt a hippo. Despite his club foot and malaria, it’s enticing to believe that the teenage pharaoh decided to hunt one of the most dangerous animals in the world. If his goal was to increase his fame then he succeeded far beyond expectations, in death becoming the most famous Egyptian ruler who ever lived.

Quest Your Way to Find the Mummies

Exploring is more fun now with the new Heritage Key Virtual Quest in the Treasures region!

As you land in the Arrivals Area after logging into Heritage Key Virtual, make your way to the teleports where you will see several destinations. Selecting “Treasures” will take you to King Tutankhamun’s Golden Shrine.

One of the museum guides will give you the keys that you will need to find the mummy. This is a short quest which will take you into the Golden Shrine. You will slowly open and enter the layers of the shrine and while doing you will get real close to the life-like example of the greatest find in archaeology. Be fascinated by each close-up zoom to Tutankhamun’s Golden Coffins; the details are breathtakingly intricate and stunning. Of course, we have bought some excitement to the questing and we can assure you if you are scared of heights and dark rooms, this will definitely do the trick.

Once you reach the end and find the key where the mummy is hiding you will be rewarded with a Quest Badge. By linking your Heritage Key account to your Facebook profile, you will then be able to share your Find the Mummy Badge on your Facebook wall. There are many other quests throughout the other regions. Do visit the Valley of the Kings where there is one short but fun quest to find the Golden Mask in the Valley of the Kings. Finish all quests, explore, have fun and share the rewards with your friends in Facebook.

While you are in Valley of the Kings don’t forget to click on the driver to have your chance to win a 1,000 worth of travel with Addison Lee, the London Based minicab company. Addison Lee will provide 1000 of cab rides in and around London to one lucky winner. The closing deadline to enter is today, so be quick!

Ticket sale starts for ‘Secrets of the Silk Road’ at the Penn Museum – Exhibition Preview

We all know the face of the Xiaohe Beauty, but what about the Yingpan Man? His clothed mummy - excavated at Yingpan, China - dates to the 3rd to 4th century AD. - Image copyright Xinjiang Institute of Archaeology Tickets go on sale today for “Secrets of the Silk Road” a landmark exhibition from China making its only East Coast stop at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (Penn Museum) in Philadelphia February 5 through June 5, 2011. The exhibition aims to reflect the wide extent of the Silk Road trade and cultural interchange (see some of the highlights in this slideshow).

Despite of what its name suggests, the Silk Road isn’t one single route. Rather, it is an extensive interconnected network of maritime and overland trade routes extending from Southern Europe through The Arabian Peninsula, Somalia, Egypt, Iran, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Java-Indonesia, and Vietnam until it reaches China.

This travelling exhibition of materials from half way around the world is opening new doors providing visitors with an unparalleled opportunity to come face to face, literally, with life in East Central Asia, both before and after the formation of the fabled Silk Routes, noted Victor Mair, University of Pennsylvania scholar, and curatorial consultant and catalogue editor for the exhibition.

‘Secrets of the Silk Road’ Preview

Click one of the images to see a larger photograph.

The Secret of Silk

Although recent archaeological evidence a small ivory cup carved with a silkworm design as well as spinning tools, silk thread and fabric fragments is dated to between 4000 and 5000 BC,it is still generally assumedsilk production started in China somewherein thelate 4th millennium BC.

About 500 years later, the domestication of pack animals (we wouldn’t learn to ride until the 1st millennium BC) and the development of shipping technology increased the capacity for prehistoric peoples to carry heavier loads over greater distances; trade started to develop rapidly.

It were not just goods that were exchanged along the first trade routes. Over the centuries, many different peoples controlled parts of the Silk Routes, all using it to spread their technology, ideas, believes and art.

Even before the 1st century AD, the earliest evidence ofsilk reaching Rome, Alexander the Great took the Greek culture into Central AsiawithGraeco-Buddhism as result.

Yet the well-guarded secret of sericulture or silk production did not spread at all.(Recent research does show the possibility that silk production started independently in the Indus Valley, around 2000BC.)

Roman historian Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History in 70 BC that “silk was obtained by removing the down from the leaves with the help of water”.

The secret of silk production reached the Middle East only in the 6th century AD, when two monks appeared at Emperor Justinian’s court hiding silkworm eggs in their hollow sticks.

And Europe? It wasn’t until the 13th century that Italy began that Italy began silk production with the introduction of 2000 skilled silk weavers from Constantinople (once Byzantium, modern day Istanbul).

Even then, high-quality silk textiles woven in China would continue to be highly valued in the West, and the trade along the Silk Route continued as before.

TheBeauty of Xiaohe

The appearance of the 3,800 year old Beauty of Xiaohe, one of two strikingly well preserved ‘caucasian’Tarim mummies and their associated artefacts travelling from China, makes “Secrets of the Silk Road” an exhibition that reaches back well beyond the historic period of the Silk Road to tell a tale of long-forgotten peoples and cultures along the worlds legendary trading route.

Tall in stature and fair in complexion, the Beauty was excavated in 2003 (listed as one ofour’Top 10 Most Important Archaeology Finds in China… ever‘). She is one of hundreds of spectacularly preserved mummies, many with surprisingly Eastern European and Mediterranean features, buried in the harsh desert sands of the vast Tarim Basin of Central Asia, in the Far Western Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China.

The Beauty of Xiaohe, will be shown along with a bundled baby mummy dated to the 8th century BC, and the complete trappings of Yingpan Man, a six-foot six-inch mummy, from the 3rd to 4th centuries AD.

The Wide Extent of the Silk Road

Besides the mummies, the exhibition features a wide range of objects, 700 to 3,800 years. Objects include well-preserved clothing, textiles, jewellery, gem-encrusted gold vessels, wood and bone implements, coins and documents even preserved foods (2,500-year-old fried dough and flower-shaped desserts).

Organized by the Bowers Museum, Santa Ana, California in association with the Archaeological Institute of Xinjiang and the Urumqi Museum, “Secrets of the Silk Road” began its U.S. tour at the Bowers Museum (March 27 to July 25) before traveling to the Houston Museum of Natural Sciences, where it is on view through January 2, 2011.

Timed tickets for the Secrets of the Silk Road exhibition at the Penn Museum can be purchased online at www.penn.museum/silkroad or by phone: (877)77-CLICK. Discounted group tickets are available by phone: (215)746-8183, or by email: grouptickets@museum.upenn.edu.

Teacher programs, including a Thursday, November 4 Educators’ Evening, 4:30 to 6:30 pm, are available through the Museum’s Community Engagement Office: (215)898-4015. Teacher materials will be available online starting December 15.

‘No ceremonial burial for the Iceman’, respond Otzi researchers

The Chalcolithic Iceman was found on lying on his stomach, with his arm in an ackward position. Possibly, his companions tried to remove a arrowhead from his shoulder. - Image courtesy the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology In his article The Iceman as a burial appearing in Antiquity 84/2010, the archaeologist Alessandro Vanzetti of Romes La Sapienza University and his coauthors reconstruct the position of the Iceman at his place of discovery on the Tisenjoch pass in South Tyrol, Italy. From this and based on his botanical investigations, he draws the conclusion that the Iceman did not die at the site of the incident: rather he died in the spring within his valley community and only later, in September, was brought up to the Tisenjoch and buried there.

The team researching tzi has now responded to Vanzettis claims, in a statement issued by the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology. They point out Vanzettis scenario has already been discussed numerous times in the past, and say it displays fundamental weaknesses in its chain of argument and its archaeological context , meaning that the hypothesis of a burial on the glacier, is unconvincing.

The conservation and research team does do not regard pollen or the distribution pattern of the associated finds as suitable for analysing the cause of death, the possible body changes after death or the funeral rites.

From an archaeological viewpoint, they say, it should be noted that this body from the Copper Age found on the Tisenjoch represents a unique discovery. South American cultures perform burials on mountains or at altitude, but there are no known comparable cases in the Alpine region. On the contrary, during the Copper Age individual burials in ordinary cemeteries close to settlements were the rule. Even in the case of highly complex funeral rites (individual or collective graves, primary or secondary burials, interment or cremation), there are no indications of burials taking place so far away from settlements.

Regarding Vanzettis ethnohistorical argument that, in Tyrol, the deceased were preserved after death and only carried over the mountain passes to cemeteries after the spring thaw, the archaeologists point out that this can be explained by the system of Christian churches with cemeteries and the feudal power structures of the Middle Ages. In such cases the dead were buried as soon as possible in the appropriate cemetery according to church law. The object was however to bring the dead to the cemetery in the village, not from the village to the mountain. Suggesting an analogy between this Christian era custom of keeping the dead and the burial practices in tzis Copper Age, the team says, is pure speculation.

The Similaun is a 3606 meter high mountain in the tztal Alps in Tyrol on the border between Austria and Italy. - Image copyright the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology If, as Vanzettis article proposes, the Iceman died in a valley location in April and was only carried up the mountain in September, there would be evidence of greater decomposition processes as well as insect infestation, despite any attempts at mummification.

The research team says there is no proof of these, so we can assume that the body must have lost much by way of fluids but was rapidly frozen and protected by a covering of snow or ice.

This special situation resulted in the mummifying of the Iceman, unique in the world, with the fluids in his tissues remaining preserved. This preservation is based on a freezedrying process and cannot be explained by dry mummification, as Vanzetti conjectures.

The most important forensic evidence for the fact that the loss of body fluid could not have occurred anywhere else than at the place of discovery is the position of the left arm and the uninterrupted stream of blood from the wounded artery via the wound path to the skin. This clearly proves that the position of the arm is as it was exactly at the time of death, while the blood was still circulating. As the corpse lost its rigidity it would have been very easy to lie the arm next to the body.

Vanzettis counterargument is that the body was buried intact on the glacier and that it only slid downwards as the glacier melted, with the arm moving to its current position in front of the chest. This is inconceivable if, as the authors previously state, the Iceman had already died a few months before and been mummified. The rigid arm could then no longer be brought into its position without causing substantial damage either to it or to the shoulder. All of the Icemans joints are in fact in their anatomically correct position. It is therefore not possible for the intact mummy to have been transported up to the glacier.

It wasnt until 2001, prompted by the discovery of an arrowhead lodged in tzi’s shoulder, scientists discovered the Iceman died a violent death. Further research revealed bruises and cuts, as well as evidence the Tyrolean Iceman received a blow to the head.

It is thought to be unlikely tzi was alone on the Similaun mountain at the time of his death possibly his companions have attempted to save him.

The research team (which includes Dr Zinc who worked on the King Tut Unwrapped DNA project) is currently reexamining the glacier mummy and for the first time his DNA. They promise to publish their data analysis as well as the resulting conclusions by next year, in time to celebrate the 20th anniversary of tzi’s discovery.

Ipswich Museum celebrates opening of new Egyptian gallery with ‘CSI My Mummy’

colchester MRI scan lady ta-hathor This week sees the opening of the Ipswich Museum‘s new Egyptian Gallery. Visitors will be able tomarvel at the mummy of Lady Tahathor, or find out about daily life in ancient Egypt as they journey down the Nile. But wait… there has been a terrible crime! A thief has broken into the museum, and stolen a very rare and precious Egyptian artefact! Can you- or your kids -help solve the mystery?

This Saturday, on the 7th of August, the Ipswich Museum celebrates the grand reopening of its Egyptian Gallery. At the centre of the new set-up is the mummy of Lady Tahathor, complete with her sarcophagus. Excitingly, the results from the Lady’s recent visit to the hostpital – she needed a CTscan-are shown on video.

Thescan on the 2,500 year old revealedthat Tahathorlikely died of natural causes, aged in her mid-twenties. Between her thighs, an odd bundle was discovered, thought to be the remains of her organs, removed during mummification. As was customary in ancient Egypt, the woman’s heart had been placed back in her body,so it could be weighed againstthe ‘feather of truth’, a vital step on her journey through the afterlife.

The new gallery is interactive, full of stunning objects and shows just how relevant and exciting museums can be for families, school pupils and general visitors

“There does appear to be a bundle of some description between (Ta-Hathor’s) thighs which may be a parcel containing her other organs such as the lungs and intestines,” explains Caronline McDonald, curator of archaeology at Colchester and Ipswich Museums. “In early Egyptian history these were placed in separate containers known as canopic jars but later they were simply wrapped and placed back in the body.”

The exhibition further explains the 70-day process of mummification using a jackal-shaped canopic jar, the golden mask of Syros and the golden mask of Titos Flavios Demetrios a Roman citizen who died in Egypt in the 1st century AD.

A true-to-life portrait of a 2,000 year old young man from Hawara, excavated by renowned 19th century archaeologist Flinders Petrie, is on loan from the Manchester Museum. Other artefacts in the ‘Journey Down the Nile’ exhibition include a rare 4000 year old chair, a beautiful 3000 year old hunting bow, exquisite jewellery, alabaster cosmetic jars and bronze figures of the gods such as Osirisand Bastet, the cat goddess.

The new gallery is interactive, full of stunning objects and shows just how relevant and exciting museums can be for families, school pupils and general visitors, says Councillor Andrew Cann from Ipswich Borough Council. Ancient Egypt is a fascinating subject for many people and this gallery showcases not only beautiful objects and rich stories but also gives a flavour of what is to come in the future redevelopment of Ipswich Museum.

The revamped exhibition includes a tactile wall showing what materials the ancient Egyptians used, as well as a working model of a Shaduf (a water lifting machine, still in use in modern day Egypt). Yet, it’s not just ‘hands on’ at the Ipswich Museum. Have you ever smelled the scent of a lotus flower?

Embalming &CSIMy Mummy

To celebrate the opening, from Tuesday the 10th to Friday the 13th of August, the museum is organising ‘CSI My Mummy’, a quest to retrieve a very rare and precious Egyptian artefact, stolen from the museum. The eventoffers children the opportunity to become part of the crime scene investigation squad looking into the artefact’s theft. They’ll learn how to examine a crime scene, cast teeth marks and dust and lift finger marks using state of the art equipment. But that’s not all. In order to solve the crime, they’ll need to know about ancient Egyptian customs, beliefs and technology as well. Full CSI suits, gloves and masks which the rookie detectives get to keep – will be provided.

On Saturday the 7th of August, join the ‘Excellent Egyptians’ event to take part in ’embalming class’, suitable for children ages 7 years and up.Join the high priest and his apprentice as they prepare the body of the previous pharaoh for the afterlife. Theyll show you how the Egyptians removed the mummy’s organs, which gods they prayed to, what went with the pharaoh on his journey to the afterlife and how they painted the pharaohs tomb.

The Ipswich Museum is open Tuesday to Saturday, from 10am to 5pm. Entrance to the museum is free. ‘CSI My Mummy‘ takes place every day from August 10th to 13th. Sessions are 10.30am -1pm (8 -11 years) or 2pm-4.30pm (12-16yrs). ‘CSI My Mummy’ costs 12 per child, and booking (Tel 01473 433691) is essential.

What will Otzi the Iceman’s DNA teach us?

The Chalcolithic Iceman was found on lying on his stomach, with his arm in an ackward position. Possibly, his companions tried to remove a arrowhead from his shoulder. - Image courtesy the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology tzi has not been put on ice, on the contrary – things are hotting up for him! By decoding tzi the Iceman’s DNA, scientists have reached a new milestone in their study of the world’s mostfamous glacier mummy.

Experts from three institutions have pooled their skills in order to map tzis entire genetic make-up: Albert Zink, Head of the EURAC Institute for Mummies and the Iceman, together with Carsten Pusch, from the Institute of Human Genetics at the University of Tbingen and Andreas Keller from the biotech firm febit in Heidelberg. Together the researchers reached a historic moment in the study of the 5,000 year old mummy.

tzi’s genetic profile is based on a defrosted bone sample extracted from the pelvis of the ice mummy. The scientists then used sequencing technology to decode the millions of building blocks which make up tzis genome, creating a DNA library which contains the largest data set ever recovered from the iceman. This work on the iceman turned out to be a ground-breaking activity for the research team. We are dealing here with old DNA which in addition is heavily fragmented, explains Albert Zink, who is entrusted with the care of tzi.

When a body was found on the Austro-Italian border in 1991, 3210 metres above sea level,it was at first assumed to be a modern corpse. Only afterthe bodywas removed from the ice, radiocarbon dating onthe upper thigh bone revealed the corpse’sto be that of a LateNeolithicmountaineer.tzi, as the 5300-year-old glacier corpse was soon nicknamed was found fully clothed and with his hair, eyes and even content of his intestines still intact.Although the mummy weights only 13 kilograms, theChalcolithic iceman must have weighed about 50, and is estimated to have been 1.60 metres tall. He wore his dark brown hair loose at shoulder lenght, and had dots and lines tattood on his lower spine, behind his left knee and on his right ankle, likely inteded as a cure for arthritis. Amongst others, the iceman carried a copper axe, a flint knife, arrows and an unfinished bow.

We knowtheIceman was not in good health when he died, but thecause and exact circumstances of tzi’s death in early summer and around the age of 46 are still debated. At first it was thought he was surprised by a winter storm, or ritually sacrificed. Only in 2001, the discovery of an arrowhead lodged in tzi’s shoulder prompted speculation that he died a violent death.Further research revealed bruises and cuts, as well as evidence the Tyrolean Iceman received a blow to the head. It is unlikely tzi was alone at the time of his death.

In 2000, scientists defrosted the natural mummy for the first time and sampled DNA from his intestines. The study of tzi’s mitochondrial DNA showed he belongs to subhaplogroup K1, meaning he shares an a common ancestor with at least 8% of modern Europeans. Further research found that surprisingly he belongs to a branch of that genetic group that is thought to beextinct, or at leastextremelyrare.

A 40x30 cm wall opening allows visitors to the South Tyrol Museum to take a look into the refrigeration chamber in which the mummy is conserved at a temperature of -6 degrees Celcius and 98 percent air humidity. - Image courtesy the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology Albert Zink and Andreas Keller recently published (in collaboration with the Egyptian team led by Zahi Hawass) the latest findings on the life and the medical condition of Tutankhamen and his family. They hope to do the same for tzi and are studying tzi’s genetic profile, looking for answers to the many questions surrounding the iceman and human evolution. Which genetic mutations can be observed between earlier and present day populations? Are any of tzis descendants still around today and if so, where might they be found?

The researchers say that by comparing the iceman’s genetic make-up and predisposition to various types of ailments, tzi can teach us about todays genetic diseases and other illnesses (such as diabetes or cancer) as well.

They promise to publish their data analysis as well as the resulting conclusions by next year, in time to celebrate the 20th anniversary of tzi’s discovery.

Since 1998, the Tyrolean Iceman and the artefacts found with him areon display at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology, Italy. The mummy is kept in a special refrigeration chamber, at the constant temperature of 6 C.

King Tut Scottish? How far can DNA theories stretch?

Mockup of King Tut in Tartan slash Scottish Dress. Yeah right! When the latest Tutankhamun study was published in Jama, there were quite a few outcries that although the study looked into the direct ancestry of King Tut, it fully ignored the pointers to the pharoah’s racial ancestry, possibly hidden in the pharaoh’s DNA. As usual, Dr Zahi was accused of many things, most notable charges of ‘hiding that King Tut was black/white/purple.’ Now a retired physicist took the time to write down some of the DNA test results exposed in the Discovery Channel programme that featured the study’s results and concluded the data shown in the docu reveals Tut’s haplogroup as R1b, one of the most common Y-chromosome haplogroups in Europe, especially the United Kingdom. So, err… was Tutankhamun Scottish, rather than black or white?

From the data exposed in the documentary ‘King Tut Unwrapped’ (start watching at about 1:50 in this video), Whit Athey concluded from the DNA data shown on the documentary that Tutankhamun must have the haplogroup R1b,associated with the male Y chromosome, and common in Ireland, Scotland, western England, France, Iberia and Scandinavia, according to Athey, European through and through. Really?

The exposure of this data was flagged before, with many speculating it was not Tutankhamun’s DNA, but rather test sequences run for the benefit of the documentary. Kate Phizackerley, KV64.info blogger(and a must read if you’re interested in all things Tut), believes the data is genuine, but that Mr Athey’s interpretation might be (way) to quick.

She points out the uncertainty of determining ancestry using the Y chromosome, and that even if R1b is Tut’s haplogroup, that does not necessarily mean he’s European.Some sub-branches of the R1b haplogroup today are mainly found in Sub-Sahara Africa: This branch of R1b is very strongly represented in the Chadric population of Western Sub-Saharan Africa with more than 95% of Cameroonian Ouldemes having an R1b? haplogroup. What is even more striking is that 28% of male the Berbers from Siwa in Egypt still have an R1b? Haplogroup. There is another concentration of R1b in central Aurasia. Phizackerley believes that, if R1b Is indeed Tut’s haplogroup, migrations when the Sahara changed from fertile savannah to desert might account for this.

It is far harder to claim moral ownership of Nefertiti’s bust if most modern Egyptians are themselves genetic incomers rather than direct descendants – at least down the male line.

She calls for the mitochondrial DNA, passed down the maternal line, results to be released (pretty please, Dr Zahi?),as mtDNA is far less likely to mutate than the Y-DNA. The mtDNA would offer a clearer picture of Tutankhamun’s racial ancestry.

But won’t Dr Hawass try to postpone releasing this data as long as possible? For if people keep speculating (Black/White/UK), these ‘ancestry theories’ keep the King Tut hype alive, creating a whole lot of extra, free publicity for Egyptology (and the Egyptology tsar’s books and TV docussuch as Chasing Mummies).Also, as Kate Phizackerley points out, the data is likely to prove that most modern Egyptians are not closely related to the Amarna Royal family, something that could become a major argument in the whole repatriation debate: It is far harder to claim moral ownership of Nefertiti’s bust if most modern Egyptians are themselves genetic incomers rather than direct descendants – at least down the male line.

Personally, I believe King Tut being Scottish as likely as Jesus having visited Cornwall and Somerset. I do want tothink that the Amesbury Archer was born in the French Alps and crossed the Channel to settle at Stonehenge about 4000 years ago. But then again,I also like to believe that he put down a better time for the crossing than those of us who travelled by Eurostar last week.

Colchester Mummy Scan Reveals ‘Strange Bones’ in Skull

The skull of an ancient Egyptian mummy in Colchester is packed with ‘strange bones’, a CT-scan has revealed. The scan on 2,500-year-old Lady Ta-Hathor yesterday also revealed an odd bundle between her thighs, thought to be the remains of her organs.

Full results from the scan, made ahead of Ta-Hathor’s display at Ipswich Museum’s new Egyptian Gallery, are expected only after an assessment by a team in Manchester. Yet it immediately showed she was healthy with no bone defects, and had died of natural causes aged in her mid-twenties – not far off the era’s life expectancy of 30. Ta-Hathor’s heart had been placed back in her body, a vital step on her journey to the afterlife.

Yet the mysterious bones inside Ta-Hathor’s skull will be of most interest to experts including Caroline McDonald, curator of archaeology at Colchester and Ipswich Museums. “It appears as if the skull cavity has been packed with linen,” says McDonald. “There are some strange bone fragments in the skull that we cant currently account for and we hope experts will be able to reveal this particular secret.”

“There does appear to be a bundle of some description between (Ta-Hathor’s) thighs which may be a parcel containing her other organs such as the lungs and intestines,” adds McDonald. “In early Egyptian history these were placed in separate containers known as canopic jars but later they were simply wrapped and placed back in the body. Again, analysis will confirm this for us.”

Ta-Hathor’s brain was also removed during mummification. All organs would be removed in the process apart from the heart, which would be weighed against the ‘feather of truth’ according to the Book of the Dead. If the heart weighed less than the feather, the deceased could continue their journey. If not they would be eaten by a fearsome crocodile-headed god named Ammut.

King Tut Died of Sickle Cell Disease, not Malaria

king Tut's Death Mask - Did he suffer from the genetic blood disorder Sickle Cell Disease? King Tut died from sickle-cell disease, not malaria, say experts. German researchers at Hamburg’s Bernhard Noct Institute for Tropical Medicine (BNI) have rejected a theory put forward by Egyptian antiquities chief Zahi Hawass, claiming sickle-cell disease (SCD) caused King Tut‘s early demise. A team led by Dr Hawass had said a combination of Khler disease and malaria was the primary cause of Tutankhamun’s death. Yet the German team are calling for more tests on the boy-king’s DNA, which they say will easily confirm or deny their claim.

The BNI team have cast doubt on Hawass’ conclusions, after studying DNA tests and CT-scans used in the article, published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (and accompanied by a host of television documentaries) in February this year.

Hawass’ team claimed DNA tests showed segments of the malaria parasite Plamodium Falciparum. A CT-scan (data of which was also used for this awesome reconstruction of King Tut’s mummy) then showed evidence of Kohler II disease, a bone disorder prohibiting blood flow, in Tutankhamun’s left foot. The team concluded that the king, weakened by the bone disorder, succumbed to malaria.

Yet a letter from BNI‘s Dr Christian Timmann and Prof Christian Meyer to JAMA says Hawass may be mistaken. Malaria in combination with Khler’s disease causing Tutankhamun’s early death seems unlikely to us, they say. The BNI team feels the hereditary SCD would have been a far more probable cause of death.

Sickle-cell disease is an important differential diagnosis: one that existing DNA material can probably confirm or rule out

Timmann and Meyer also note that bone abnormalities shown on the mummy’s CT-scans can be interpreted differently. They claim the defects, though consistent with Khler’s disease, are also compatible with osteopathologic lesions seen in SCD.

Sickle-cell disease – a genetic blood disorder characterised by red blood cells assuming a sickle shape – occurs frequently in malarial regions, and can result in complications like the bone disfigurements discovered on King Tut.

The genetic predisposition for (sickle-cell disease) can be found in regions where malaria frequently occurs, including ancient and modern Egypt. Meyer explains. The disease can only manifest itself when sickle cell trait is inherited from both parents, it is a so-called recessive inheritance. The haematological disorder occurs in 9 to 22 per cent of people living in Egyptian oases. Having just one of the two alleles of SCD gives a better chance of survival in malaria-endemic areas, when infestation is halted by the sickling of the cells it infests.

It is known to those who study tropical diseases, writes Timmann, that in areas where malaria occurs deaths due to malaria occur most frequently during childhood. Tutankhamun died aged 19, making a malaria-related death improbable. However SCD, while inherited at birth, is most likely to result in fatal complications between childhood and early adulthood.

A family tree of King Tut, suggested by Hawass himself, appears to further the German team’s case. The relatively old age of Tutankhamun’s parents and relatives up to 50 years means they could very well have carried the sickle-cell trait, and could therefore have been highly resistant to malaria. The high likelihood that King Tut’s parents were in fact siblings means he could have inherited the gene from both and suffered from SCD.

Sickle-cell disease is an important differential diagnosis: one that existing DNA material can probably confirm or rule out, conclude Timmann and Meyer. They suggest that further testing of ancient Egyptian royal mummies should bear their conclusions in mind.

King Tut’s young demise has long been a source of speculation. As well as malaria, recent decades have seen scholars argue that he was murdered, and that he died from infection caused by a broken leg.

The million mummy question: Why are there a million mummies buried near Snefu’s Seila pyramid?

Nearly 4,600 years ago a third dynasty pharaoh named Snefru launched one of the greatest construction projects in human history.

He decided, for reasons that are unknown to us, to build four pyramids scattered at different places across Egypt. He constructed two of them at Dashur (the Red and Bent pyramids), one at Meidum and another at a place called Seila. Together they used up more material than Khufus pyramid at Giza.

Casing stones were used to give them a smooth appearance in other words make them into true pyramids.” This was the first time in Egyptian history that this was done.

Today a team from Brigham Young University, in Utah, is investigating these pyramids, trying to figure out why Snefru would build four of them in the way he did.

One of the puzzles the team is trying to decipher involves a cemetery not far from the Seila Pyramid. Its a 40 minute hike away and research indicates that it has an enormous number of mummies. We estimate over a million bodies in this cemetery, said Professor Kerry Muhlestein in an interview with Heritage Key. Its very very densely populated by mummies.

Only a small percentage of them have been unearthed. Weve been digging there for 30 years and we could dig there for a hundred more and still have only done a small percentage, said Muhlestein.

Results indicate that the cemetery was not in use during Snefrus time. In fact the earliest burials appear to be from the Middle Kingdom at least 600 years after the Seila pyramid was constructed. Furthermore most of the burials are even later than that.

For the most part the cemetery is Graeco-Roman period, from the Ptolemaic era down to the end of the Byzantine era, said Muhlestein. This period started when Alexander the Great entered Egypt in 332 BC.

So the question is why did so many people who lived long after Snefrus reign choose to be buried so close to the Seila Pyramid?

A sacred place

Making this question more enticing is that this wasnt just a local cemetery. People seem to have come some distance to be interned here.

Its such a huge cemetery its hard to account for where all these people would have lived the population centres around there dont seem to substantiate that many burials, said Professor Muhlestein.

Maybe these are people coming from a variety of communities, all around, being buried in this place. Were not sure what would account for such a large number of burials.

Could there be a connection to the pyramid? Despite the fact that it was built thousands of years before most of these people were buried? Muhlestein believes that its a real possibility but one hard to prove unless textual evidence is found. It probably is at least partially responsible for why theres a cemetery there, said Muhlestein.

It seems very reasonable to suppose that the pyramid designated that as a sacred place, he said. Once that place is a sacred place it typically will remain a sacred place.

A family of mummies

In early 2010 the Brigham Young team continued their work. The university has a program that lets students learn field techniques while excavating at the site.

Its an interesting, and indeed fairly rare, opportunity for students. You wont find too many field-schools, who accept undergraduates, operating in Egypt. Muhlestein said that they have had an excellent experience with this program and the most recent dig turned up, what appears to be, a family who lived at some point during the early/mid 1st millennium AD, when Christianity was widespread in Egypt.

They found an adult male and female buried close together with an infant at their feet and a toddler on their chest. We think this might be a family but well have to do some DNA analysis to know for sure, said Muhlestein.

Each of them was buried with their head facing to the east, this is probably indicative of the advent of Christianity, said Muhlestein.

The family does not appear to have been very wealthy. They were mummified, but without all the chemical treatments seen in wealthier burials. A poor mans version of mummification, is how Muhlestein described it.

The only grave goods the team found were palm branches. The mummies were covered with a layer of wrapping, which had ribbons on it, that had badly deteriorated.