Tag: Alexander the great

‘Unique’ astronomical object reveals Ancient Egyptians kept close tabs on the Big Dipper

New research on a 2,400 year old star table shows that the Ancient Egyptians kept close tabs on the Big Dipper, monitoring changes in the constellations orientation throughout the course of an entire year.

The Big Dipper is composed of seven stars and is easily viewable in the northern hemisphere. Its shape looks like a ladle with a scoop attached. Ancient Egyptians represented it as an oxs foreleg.

If a personwere to observethe constellationat the exactsame time every night they would see it gradually move counter-clockwise each time they saw it.

Professor Sarah Symons, of McMaster University in Hamilton Canada, carried out the new research. She presented her results on Sunday at an Egyptology symposium in Toronto. The star table she analyzed is located inside the lid of a 2,400 year old granite sarcophagus, constructed in the shape of a bull, which is now in the Egyptian Museum. The table is, unique, though interesting, a very provocative astronomical object, she said.

Indeed the sarcophagus dates to the 30th dynasty, an important period in Egyptian history. It is the last point of time in antiquity where Egypt would be ruled by native born rulers. In 343 BC the Persians took over Egypt, defeating a pharaoh named Nectanebo II and forcing him to flee south into Nubia. The country would remain under Persian control until Alexander the Great captured it in 332 BC, inaugurating a long line of Greek, followed by Roman, rulers.

Monitoring the Big Dipper

Inside the sarcophagus there is an astronomical table, a section of which has rows that show the foreleg of an ox in a wide range of different positions. Its quite a jumble, Professor Symons said.

This section, although confusing to read, includes notation for the three Egyptian seasons, Akhet, Peret and Shemu. Each season is broken down into four months. It also has symbols representing the beginning, middle and end of the night although it isnt knownat what exact time thesepoints would have been set.

(Its) location throughout the course of the night, across the course of the year, was important for them to report.

Symons decided to focus on the orientation of the forelegs, re-drawing them as arrows. When she did this a pattern started to appear.In general the motion that it follows is the counter-clockwise motion that we would expect.

But there were problems. Over the course of a year the forelegs sometimes went the wrong way as if the stars had stopped obeying the rules of astronomy. She believes that this was a scribal error, caused by someone writing down the information in the wrong format.

When the observations were first made they were written on papyrus and the monthswereprobablyorganized intocolumns. On the other hand they were written in as rows on the sarcophagus.

What happens to our table if we just keep all the months together?And work with them as columns, she wondered.She found that the table hadfewer errorsand the information fell into place. Overall the motion is counter-clockwise throughout the year in general, she said.

An ancient record

This table, she said in an interview, it not made up of casual observations of the Big Dipper but looks more like a record of it. The Big Dipper’s location throughout the course of the night, across the course of the year, was important for them to report.

She added that this practice, of recording the orientation of the constellation, may have been going on for some time. We have only a fraction of the original astronomical documents, created by the Egyptians, she pointed out.

Why they created this year-long record is another matter. Although it would have been of help in timekeeping, Symons thinks that the main reason is probably ceremonial perhaps something to do with the bull shaped sarcophagus that it is found in. The star record would be bound up with temple ritual (and) mortuary ritual,” she said.

Ticket sale starts for ‘Secrets of the Silk Road’ at the Penn Museum – Exhibition Preview

We all know the face of the Xiaohe Beauty, but what about the Yingpan Man? His clothed mummy - excavated at Yingpan, China - dates to the 3rd to 4th century AD. - Image copyright Xinjiang Institute of Archaeology Tickets go on sale today for “Secrets of the Silk Road” a landmark exhibition from China making its only East Coast stop at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (Penn Museum) in Philadelphia February 5 through June 5, 2011. The exhibition aims to reflect the wide extent of the Silk Road trade and cultural interchange (see some of the highlights in this slideshow).

Despite of what its name suggests, the Silk Road isn’t one single route. Rather, it is an extensive interconnected network of maritime and overland trade routes extending from Southern Europe through The Arabian Peninsula, Somalia, Egypt, Iran, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Java-Indonesia, and Vietnam until it reaches China.

This travelling exhibition of materials from half way around the world is opening new doors providing visitors with an unparalleled opportunity to come face to face, literally, with life in East Central Asia, both before and after the formation of the fabled Silk Routes, noted Victor Mair, University of Pennsylvania scholar, and curatorial consultant and catalogue editor for the exhibition.

‘Secrets of the Silk Road’ Preview

Click one of the images to see a larger photograph.

The Secret of Silk

Although recent archaeological evidence a small ivory cup carved with a silkworm design as well as spinning tools, silk thread and fabric fragments is dated to between 4000 and 5000 BC,it is still generally assumedsilk production started in China somewherein thelate 4th millennium BC.

About 500 years later, the domestication of pack animals (we wouldn’t learn to ride until the 1st millennium BC) and the development of shipping technology increased the capacity for prehistoric peoples to carry heavier loads over greater distances; trade started to develop rapidly.

It were not just goods that were exchanged along the first trade routes. Over the centuries, many different peoples controlled parts of the Silk Routes, all using it to spread their technology, ideas, believes and art.

Even before the 1st century AD, the earliest evidence ofsilk reaching Rome, Alexander the Great took the Greek culture into Central AsiawithGraeco-Buddhism as result.

Yet the well-guarded secret of sericulture or silk production did not spread at all.(Recent research does show the possibility that silk production started independently in the Indus Valley, around 2000BC.)

Roman historian Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History in 70 BC that “silk was obtained by removing the down from the leaves with the help of water”.

The secret of silk production reached the Middle East only in the 6th century AD, when two monks appeared at Emperor Justinian’s court hiding silkworm eggs in their hollow sticks.

And Europe? It wasn’t until the 13th century that Italy began that Italy began silk production with the introduction of 2000 skilled silk weavers from Constantinople (once Byzantium, modern day Istanbul).

Even then, high-quality silk textiles woven in China would continue to be highly valued in the West, and the trade along the Silk Route continued as before.

TheBeauty of Xiaohe

The appearance of the 3,800 year old Beauty of Xiaohe, one of two strikingly well preserved ‘caucasian’Tarim mummies and their associated artefacts travelling from China, makes “Secrets of the Silk Road” an exhibition that reaches back well beyond the historic period of the Silk Road to tell a tale of long-forgotten peoples and cultures along the worlds legendary trading route.

Tall in stature and fair in complexion, the Beauty was excavated in 2003 (listed as one ofour’Top 10 Most Important Archaeology Finds in China… ever‘). She is one of hundreds of spectacularly preserved mummies, many with surprisingly Eastern European and Mediterranean features, buried in the harsh desert sands of the vast Tarim Basin of Central Asia, in the Far Western Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China.

The Beauty of Xiaohe, will be shown along with a bundled baby mummy dated to the 8th century BC, and the complete trappings of Yingpan Man, a six-foot six-inch mummy, from the 3rd to 4th centuries AD.

The Wide Extent of the Silk Road

Besides the mummies, the exhibition features a wide range of objects, 700 to 3,800 years. Objects include well-preserved clothing, textiles, jewellery, gem-encrusted gold vessels, wood and bone implements, coins and documents even preserved foods (2,500-year-old fried dough and flower-shaped desserts).

Organized by the Bowers Museum, Santa Ana, California in association with the Archaeological Institute of Xinjiang and the Urumqi Museum, “Secrets of the Silk Road” began its U.S. tour at the Bowers Museum (March 27 to July 25) before traveling to the Houston Museum of Natural Sciences, where it is on view through January 2, 2011.

Timed tickets for the Secrets of the Silk Road exhibition at the Penn Museum can be purchased online at www.penn.museum/silkroad or by phone: (877)77-CLICK. Discounted group tickets are available by phone: (215)746-8183, or by email: grouptickets@museum.upenn.edu.

Teacher programs, including a Thursday, November 4 Educators’ Evening, 4:30 to 6:30 pm, are available through the Museum’s Community Engagement Office: (215)898-4015. Teacher materials will be available online starting December 15.

England’s World Cup Woe is an Ancient Affair

Triesman slammed the Spanish, then we berated an Italian before surrendering to the Germans. But it’s a Macedonian England’s hierarchy should have studied before the country’s calamitous World Cup campaign. Alexander the Great didn’t get his name for nothing, but the way in which his empire imploded should have been a lesson to the FA long before its capitulation on Sunday.

The Lesson

Alexander the Great was born to be a leader. A son of Philip II of Macedon, Alexander enjoyed an unrivalled education under the tutelage of Aristotle. Aged just 19 he’d been handed the reigns of the empire, packing fearsome oratory skills and deadly military nous. Brandishing an terrifying army Alexander marmalised Persians, Egyptians and other enemies, stopping short of conquering India.

Yet Alexander’s empire was built on sand. His father had left monumental debts, and Alexander’s military had an equally voracious appetite. Eastern lands were conquered on commercial backhanders and land-grabs, and future subjects were, compared to those of the Romans, given an easy economic ride. Come Alexander’s death in 323 BC aged just 32, Macedonia was on its knees financially. He had also created an extremist authoritarian state, where he as ‘King of Kings’ ruled absolutely, killing any potential rivals.

As the empire swelled outwards on foreign money, Alexander’s selfish role left his beloved empire destitute, and it duly crumbled from within soon after his death. Building and military costs abroad had caused an economy and talent black hole back home.

From Bactria to Bloemfontein

Ring any bells? It should. England’s footballers were the sporting equivalent of Monty Python’s Mr Creosote in South Africa: sitting in gilded thrones and stroking swollen egos, unaware of their imminent doom. But the cats got fat for a reason: England’s Premiership may be the fastest, most exciting and widest-watched of all domestic club competitions. Yet in recent years it has become a billionaire’s toy box built on predicted figures and an ever-growing influx of foreign talent, at the expense of home-grown players and staff.

Just look at the nation’s biggest club. Fifteen years ago Manchester United, owned by an panel of Brits, produced some of the country’s best talent in a single generation: David Beckham, Paul Scholes and the Neville brothers all made their name in the era winning countless trophies while galvanising an England which, while winning nothing, performed with immeasurably more passion than Capello’s lame did in South Africa.

Fast forward and United, now owned by the American Glazer family, have produced almost no home-grown talent, relying on foreigners like Dimitar Berbatov, Nemanja Vidic and the da Silva brothers to win trophies which the owners are gambling the club’s future on each year. United have bought their British talent for huge sums, and even young blood now comes from all over the world.

Two Empires Built on Sand

Alexander built extensively during his reign, despite an economy teetering on the brink. Stone had been used almost exclusively for religious sites, but Alexander stamped his mark with entire cities made from it. Likewise the paradoxical expenditure of top-flight clubs on stadia and training facilities – 196m in 2008/09, “the third highest level of capital expenditure on developing projects since the formation of the Premier League in 1992” reports Contruction News – illustrates an industry out of touch with the global economy.

Players are paid astronomical sums while youth systems and the lower leagues struggle for air, just as Macedonian client kings were paid off rather than conquered. Owners from every continent are betting the future of England’s beloved clubs and national team on a whim, and the nation laps it up for three of every four years. But when it comes to the crunch, just as when Alexander died, everyone discovers an empire built on sand, suffocated by its need to spread as far wide as possible.

That Sunday’s cringing coup de gras was delivered by a young German side whose clubs are still largely owned by local members, with an emphasis on stability, was all the more telling. Alexander’s fateful exploits were studied by the Romans, who imposed strict tax laws and a ruthless government based in Rome to build an empire lasting centuries. Unless England’s ruling bodies follow suit and impose stricter rules on the running of clubs, tighter measures on ‘fit and proper’ owners, and enforced investment in youth leagues, systems and facilities, England fans will be getting the Bloemfontein blues for years to come.

Other lessons from the ancient world:

Who Has Conquered the Middle East throughout History? Mapsofwar’s Interactive Map

My generation has grown up almost exclusively exposed to war in the Middle East. Two wars in Iraq, one in Afghanistan and countless battles between neighbouring nations in the region. The Middle East has been a battleground since time began – and now you can see exactly who has conquered it through the ages with mapsofwar.com‘s great-looking 90 second walkthrough.

The map begins in 3,000 BC with the invention of the Egyptian Empire – though there’s no mention of the Sumerian states which comprised the Cradle of Civilization – and shows the spread of the Hittites, Israelis, Assyrians and Babylonians before Cyrus the Great’s Persians swept all in their path, forging an empire which stretched from Libya and Greece to Syria from 550 to 330 BC.

Alexander the Great – Heritage Key’s ancient election 2010 victor – then wiped out Persian resistance, establishing Hellenistic rule from his native Macedon to Pakistan. Alexander’s mighty empire would soon collapse under civil and economic unrest, and the Roman Empire controlled the Mediterranean as far east as the Persian Gulf.

The Byzantines and Sassanids then conquered various parts of the Middle East, until the rise of Islam resulted in the Caliphate around the 6th and 7th centuries AD. Great leaders such as Saladin and, of course, Genghis Khan, then stamped their mark on the continent before the Middle East moved out of the ancient period. The map is a great way to see how the world’s greatest empires have evolved over time. Let’s face it: there are much worse ways to spend 90 seconds!

Michael Katsidis: Boxing’s Spartan Warrior

This Saturday Britain’s next great boxing hope ( all tabloids) Kevin Mitchell faces off against Aussie Michael Katsidis for the WBO Interim Lightweight title at West Ham’s Upton Park. Anyone who’s seen Katsidis, 29, in action will know 25-year-old Mitchell is walking into an epic battle. And though he’s expected to defeat his antipodean opponent, Mitchell’s rise to stardom could well be dealt a Greek tragedy.

One of around 350,000 Australians with Greek heritage, Katsidis’ father lives in a hamlet said to be the birthplace of Trojan hero Achilles, the warrior whose body was invincible bar his infamous heel. Katsidis loves his Greek heritage, and has made it his trademark to step into the ring wearing a Spartan war helmet and warrior’s skirt.

Katsidis’ back is even emblazoned with a tattoo of the Vergina Sun, a decorative symbol associated with Alexander the Great’s father Philip II of Macedon. It is who I am – and I am so proud of who I am, he tells the BBC. (Greeks) love what I do in their name – that I walk out there with my heart on my sleeve, with the Greek warrior helmet – and they love their boxing.

“Greeks love what I do in their name – that I walk out there with my heart on my sleeve, with the Greek warrior helmet.”

Katsidis is famed for a particularly brutal brand of pugilism, so the allusion to ancient Sparta couldn’t be more apt. Sparta was a feared city-state from the Peloponesse which rose to prominence from the 10th to the 5th century BC, when it defeated Athens and her allies in the Peloponnesian War of 404 BC. Famed for their steely attitude and terrifying bloodlust, Spartan warriors have been immortalised thanks to films like 300 and Spartacus. Recent series Spartacus: Blood and Sand was even dubbed the goriest show in TV history.

True to his Greek ancestory Katsidis remains philosophical on his chances against Mitchell, a true-born Eastender being carried on a wave of publicity. He can’t be disrespected. He can’t be underestimated either. But I believe when it comes to the eighth, ninth and 10th rounds and he’s going back to his stool and he’s lucky to be able to stand up, he’s cut everywhere and he’s got nothing left in his body, nothing I say beforehand will have made a difference to the fight.

There are no plans for the future,” Katsidis adds. “Every fight I’ve had has been a war and I can’t see this being any different. Kevin Mitchell beware: few have gone to war with a Spartan and survived.

Romans were famed for their bloodsports: click here to view a special video on London’s hidden past, including its incredible gladiatorial amphitheatre.

New Egyptian Gallery in Kansas Museum Features “Virtual Reincarnation Machines”

Cartonnage for head of Meretites. Image Credit - Nelson Atkins Museum of Art. The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City has just opened a new Egyptian gallery that features the coffin, cartonnage and shabtis of an Egyptian noblewoman who died around 2,300 years ago.

Her name was Meretites which means beloved by her father. Her funerary artefacts date to some point between 380-250 BC. This date means that she may well have been contemporaneous with Alexander the Great and witness to a remarkable period of Egyptian history.

Alexander the Great advanced into Egypt in 332 BC, taking over power from the Persians. He would go on to conquer an empire that stretched from Macedonia to the modern day India-Pakistan border. After his death in 323 BC a power vacuum ensued.

His generals battled over who would control his empire and in the end it was divided up. Ptolemy I Soter became the ruler of Egypt, starting a dynasty that continued until the suicide of Queen Cleopatra in 30 BC.

The Nelson-Atkins Museum acquired the coffin and shabtis in 2007. They are believed to have originally been from somewhere in Middle Egypt. Artefacts no longer leave Egypt on a permanent basis so these objects were certainly discovered many decades ago.

A Beautiful Coffin

The coffin is well preserved and shows some beautiful imagery. The outer coffin is eight feet long and the inner coffin is seven feet long. There is no mummy inside of it.

Both the inner and outer coffins are painted with elaborate images meant to ensure the resurrection of Meretites: Nut, the sky goddess, who boldly outstretches her wings to protect Meretites; chattering baboons that raise their arms in adoration of the sun; and Egyptian dung beetles that push the great solar disk through the heavens. Each figure, each color and each hieroglyph follow a formula intended to allow entry into the afterlife, said the museum in a news release.

In addition to the coffin the museum has 305 shabti figurines that would have accompanied Meretites. Shabtis are miniature figures that were created to do the work of the deceased in the afterlife. The museum also has cartonnage meant for the head of Meretites.

Museum curator Robert Cohon, who is in charge of ancient art at the museum, was ecstatic at being able to exhibit allthese artefacts. Our visitors especially families and kids are going to be wowed by the power and presence of the coffins, he said in the release. The coffins were virtual reincarnation machines that were absolutely necessary for the deceased to enter the afterlife.

Greek Financial Crisis Echoes Ancient Era of King Cassander

Financial austerity measures were a grave problem in ancient Greece too it seems quite literally. In the same week that the European Union and the International Monetary Fund have been asked by Greece to unblock the first tranche of a 110-billion (93 billion) bail-out loan package in exchange for severe spending cuts, archaeologists have revealed how 2,300 years ago people in the northern Greek region of Macedonia were forced to scale back on funeral offerings, probably on orders from the king.

The AFP reports that senior archaeologist for the Greek Archaeological Service Manthos Besios told Athens daily newspaper Ta Nea how, in the 4th century BC, graves in Pydna a prominent city in the ancient kingdom made famous by Alexander the Great (winner of our recent fantasy election), which is currently under excavation with Besios as deputy supervisor contained such treasures as gold jewels, elaborate vases and ivory-plated beds.

Era of Austerity

Fast forward a century to the reign of King Cassander of Macedon, and people in the same area were being buried with cheaper materials such as clay.

If one wanted to make light of the situation, one could replace the IMF with King Cassander in todays terms.

At the close of the fourth century, a decree issued by Cassanders commander in Macedon-occupied Athens forbade the building of elaborate funeral monuments and limited spending on ceremonies, said Besios. He linked the find to Greeces modern economic crisis. It was like the period we are going through today one that will possibly be found by an archaeologist of the future.

If one wanted to make light of the situation, one could replace the IMF with King Cassander in todays terms, he added. Good to see someones managing to laugh amid all this economic doom and gloom.

Credit Crunch of Antalya

The findings at Pydna follow evidence of another Greek mini financial crisis around 500 years later in the city of Rhodiapolis. As Sean blogged, a new excavation of the coastal settlement near the modern Turkish city of Antalya has yielded a large stone tablet, on which the citys inhabitants had sometimes towards the 3rd century AD etched their dismay at rising taxes under the then-Roman Emperor Septimius Severus.

Surprisingly, Severus yielded and promised to lower rates for Rhodiapolis. Heres hoping the economic unrest currently rocking Greece eventually comes to a similarly amicable conclusion.

HK Fantasy Election Policy Roundup: Alexander the Great’s Manifesto

Britain might be staring a hung parliament in the face, but Heritage Key’s election has quickly become a two-horse race. And with just a few hours to go ’til the votes are counted in our grand finale (alas, no Jon Snow and his ever-brilliant green-screenery), it’s time to swot up on Alexander the Great’s manifesto.

Alexander was born in Pella, modern-day Greece, in 356 BC. His father Philip II was already one of the Macedonian Empire’s greatest kings, and was determined that his son would make the nation even greater. A rigorous education ensued, during which Alexander was even afforded personal tuition at the hands of Aristotle. Soon he was a feared military man and canny diplomat, and was handed power aged just 19 in 336 BC upon his father’s death.

Brandishing a terrifying army and unrivalled oratory skills Alexander forced his way past the Persians into Egypt, Mesopotamia and Bactria, but stopped short of conquering India. Nonetheless by his death Alexander had built one of man’s largest empires, and with it immortality.

Alexander the Great’s Manifesto

Defence

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Defence is a big priority for Alexander. He spent up to double his empire’s tax revenues on the army, but in fairness the results were spectacular. Though diplomacy was the first option, anyone who would not be Greek was a ‘barbarian’ and dispatched as such.

Alexander conquered lands such as modern Iraq and Afghanistan with incomparable ease. His army were never left untrained or poorly-equipped – a residue from his father’s reign. Yet there was another reason other than the spread of empire that Alexander advanced so far east, stopping only at India. His empire fed on taxes from newly-acquired peoples, so expansion was crucial.

The Economy

Philip II of Macedon left Alexander a huge amount of national debt, helped in no way by the voracious appetites of his military. Because he needed money to bribe and appease his way eastwards, high-ranking officials and noblemen were instead given land and taxes in lieu of payments. As in today’s economic meltdown, Alexander was pledging the future of his empire, and by the time of his death that empire was descending into turmoil.

Still, noblemen were not allowed to run riot, and there are several instances where Alexander came down extremely hard on those he thought to be milking his economy a little too much. God only knows what he’d have done if one of his courtiers had spent his war chest on a duck house or a moat.

Education

Alexander had a profound effect on education throughout his conquered lands. Greek culture was already world-renowned when he came to power, but he made it a priority to spread the word by establishing wider democracy and building theatres, gymnasia and commerce.

Alexander’s exploits were even the foundation for the European Renaissance some 1,500 years later thanks to the mixing of Arab and Greek literary works. He even built the city and chose the site on which the legendary Library of Alexandria, the pantheon of ancient intellect, could be founded.

Foreign Affairs

Alexander’s view towards foreigners was a paradoxical one. He may have pre-dated the civil rights movement by over two thousand years with his famous speech at Opis (later Ctesiphon) in 324 BC, in which he noted no distinction between Greeks and barbarians, and that the best will govern regardless of their race. Yet Alexander’s armies maimed, killed and destroyed their way past continents of nations pursuing Greek domination. Thus it could be said that Alexander’s foreign affairs motto was something like, I accept anyone, as long as they agree with me.

Other Policies

One unsung policy Alexander introduced was to make shaving of the face compulsory among his men for the first time in history. He believed this would increase chances of survival in battle as enemies couldn’t pull on their beards during battle.

Convinced? Check out the opposition’s manifesto here, or go ahead and VOTE NOW!

How to Vote in the Fantasy Election: Main Parties Policy Analysis

Its been a tense few days on the Heritage Key fantasy election trail. Since the worlds ancient leaders first went to the polls on Saturday, voters have turned out in typical numbers to exercise their right to vote. Early indications show that this years election is a two-horse race: firmly in the lead is Alexander the Great, with Romes Augustus closing in as a close second.

Alexander can certain talk the talk. But are the voters swayed by his powers of persuasion and provocative title, or are they actually voting for policies? Is rival Augustus the thinking historians choice, or is he really second-best to the frontrunner? As election day draws close, we outline the main policies of the leading candidates to help you select the right leader in Heritage Key’s fantasy election.

Alexander the Great – Big on Offence

Click here to read Alexander the Greats manifesto in full, or VOTE NOW

Alexander the Greats Manifesto is heavy on defence. He proposes to spend a fortune on it … and on offence too. Voters might be put off by his ruthless invasions of other countries, but remember taxes from those countries paid for your ancient libraries, gymnasia and theatres. Do you really want to give those up?

Which brings us onto education. Like Boris Johnson, Alexander placed great stock in educating the masses. Having benefitted from an Aristotelian education himself, he set out to bring enlightenment to his people. One of his greatest achievements is the city and library of Alexandria (Philosopher Hypatia would be an ideal campaign buddy).

Education is high up on the agenda in his political manifesto, and lovers of literature, learning and the Classics will surely be swayed by his policies.

But a word of warning can we really trust Alexander with the economy? His track record is fairly dismal, with an over-indulgent military and considerable national debt.

Emperor Augustus – King of Family Values

Click here to read Augustus’ manifesto in full, or VOTE NOW

In contrast to war-mongering, money-squandering Alexander, Augustus promises a return to family values. Its a popular policy that has been wheeled out by many parties since, and Augustus makes a convincing demonstration by imposing severe penalties on adultery and refusal to marry.

Voters hankering for electoral reform may also be interested in Augustuss policy on a new, autocratic, political system. Forget wayward ministers with their own agenda, or getting to grips with a hung parliament a vote for Augustus is just that. As an all-powerful one-man autocrat, hell certainly keep things simple, and not bother you with new leaders for quite some time.

Augustus promise of a free corn dole to citizens (make sure you read the small print before voting he doesnt mean everyone) is bound to prove popular, as is his habit of building cool new theatres and forums. But just be careful who youre seen there with. If, like many of us, you hanker back to the Roman era of debauchery and violence, then Augustus’ new world order might not be for you.

And what about Augustus the man? He may have the face of an angel, but can we trust our blue-eyed boy knowing that he changes his own name at the drop of a toga? Whats hiding amongst the folds of those previous identities?

Last Chance to Vote

Of course, you don’t need to go with the main parties. If you don’t want to vote tactically, you could always fling your vote at a no-hoper like Boudicca or Akhenaten, or even throw in your lot with dangerous heretic Qin Shi Huang or make a protest vote for Jesus.

Voting ends at midnight tomorrow (making it several hours ‘better’ than the UK election). You can only vote once, so think carefully – who do you want in charge?

Click here to cast your vote now

Love and War in Ancient Lycia – Antony and Cleopatra’s Romantic Turkish Getaway

Maybe its because Antony and Cleopatra did much of their romancing there, or perhaps its the azure sea, sandy beaches, traditional villages and lazy pace of life which make the Lycian coast in south west Turkey the ideal place for a romantic holiday – an experience that you can win in our Ancient World in London competition.

But the history of the Lycian Way is peppered as much with war as it is with romance, and its tumultous history helps make Lycia a fascinating area of Turkey to visit.

The mountainous, rugged territory behind the idyllic coastal scenery isolated Lycia from the rest of Anatolia, making the ancient Lycians fiercely independent and giving them a distinctive place in ancient Anatolian history. This independence caused the inhabitants of the chief city, Xanthos to make a funeral pyre of their own city and burn themselves alive rather than be conquered; first by the Persians circa 540 BC and the second time during the Roman civil war circa 42 BC when the inhabitants of Xanthos refused to assist Brutus.

Thought to be an indigenous pre-Hittite race, the Lycians had their own distinctive language and script and Herodotus wrote they reckon their lineage not by their fathers but by their mothers side.

The Lukkas of Lycia

Ancient Egyptian records referred to the race as Lukka and indicate the Lycians were allies of the Hittites. When the Hittite Empire collapsed, they emerged as an independent Neo-Hittite kingdom.

The Lycians were mentioned in the Iliad as allies of the Trojans, but in the 6th century BC, Lycia succumbed to the Persian Empire. After a little spat with Athens in 429BC, it was mostly left to rule itself during this time.

As an area Lycia organised itself to form the Lycian Federation. This was a democratic grouping, which consisted of 23 voting units and was charged with electing national officials and municipal authorities. These democratic principles are said to have influenced the United States constitution.

Lycia remained officially under Persian rule until it was conquered by Alexander the Great in 334-333BC. After his death, the Ptolemies ruled Lycia and Greek gradually replaced the Lycian language and Greek constitutions were adopted. Antiochus III defeated the Ptolemies in 197BC and he gave the kingdom to the Rhodians. This was bitterly disputed by the Lycians who succeeded in 167BC in having the relegation revoked.

The Lycians enjoyed a couple of centuries of semi-independence and the Lycian Federation came back into prominence.

In the Roman civil wars, after refusing to assist Brutus and gaining favour with Rome, Anthony reconfirmed Lycias autonomy and in 43AD the region was joined to Pamphylia. During this time, Lycias population reached around 200,000.

Legend has it that the Lycian Federation prepared the island of Cedre (Sedir Adasi, also known as Cleopatras isle, situated off Marmaris) for the arrival of Cleopatra. To make Cleopatra feel at home, galleys full of sand was transported from Egypt to be strewn on the shore of Cedra. Analysis has since shown the sand isnt from local strata.

Decline started to set in when the province was divided by Diocletian in the 4th century AD which deteriorated further with Arab raids in the 7th and 8th centuries.

The Chimera and Other Myths

The area enters into many Greek myths. Lycia is linked to Crete as it was ruled by King Minoss brother, Sarpedon, a Cretan exile.

The natural burning flames near Olympos, known as the eternal fires of Chimera, are also thought to be the root of the Chimera legend. This fire-breathing monster, with the head of a lion, body of a goat and tail of a snake terrorised the area and was eventually killed by Bellerophon.

As an aside, the silhouette of the Chimera is the logo for the state-run Petrol Ofisi Turkish filling stations.

Rock Cut Tombs

Much of the Lycian architecture has been overlaid with buildings from the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The most recognisable structures from Lycia are the rock-cut tombs in the side of cliffs throughout the area, such as the ones at Dalyan. Other ‘free standing’ Lycian tombs are said to depict an upturned boat.

There is also the Harpy Tomb which was found at Xanthos. Dating from circa 5th century BC, the marble-reliefed tomb was set on a thick pillar standing over 7m high.

As the original is now in the British Museum, a replica has been placed at the site. It should also be noted, the Trilingual Stele found at Letoon, the spiritual centre of Lycia, had instructions in Greek, Lycian and Aramaic and was crucial in deciphering the Lycian language (read more about trilingual texts and their role in decipherment here).

Lycia is a stunning area of Turkey and is steeped in an amazing, but bloody history. The Lycian Way is a popular destination for walkers who will receive a traditional warm Turkish welcome from locals as they travel the ancient route.
My advice is to stay away from the resorts, and wherever possible find a secluded olive grove to contemplate the past of this rugged, but beautiful area.

To be in with a chance of winning a holiday in ancient Lycia, dive into our Ancient World in London series, and start earning points.