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Chief Archaeologist: New discoveries show First Emperor’s Mausoleum influenced by foreign ideas

Acrobats from Burma, workers from Central or West Asia, and a mausoleum design inspired by work in the Middle East the Mauseoleum of Chinas First Emperor was a cosmopolitan place says Dr. Duan Qingbo, the man in charge of excavating it.

The mausoleum was created about 2,200 year ago and served as a tomb for Qin Shi Huang the first emperor of China. While the emperors tomb is largely unexcavated, archaeologists have found thousands of life-size terracotta figures nearby. Its believed that this army was created to serve the emperor in the afterlife.

Dr. Duan (Duan is his family name) discussed this idea at a lecture last Thursday at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto Canada. The museum is hosting a Terracotta Warriors exhibit until January 2, 2011. He doesnt speak English so his words were translated by Dr. Chen Shen, a museum curator and Chinese archaeology expert.

East meets West

Traditionally scholars have marked the 2nd century BC as the starting point of Chinas relationship with the west. The Silk Road was opened for trade at that time,opening upwhat would become a booming trade.

Now the evidence shows that the cultural exchange or influence from the western world begins as early as the time of the First Emperor, said Dr. Duan. In fact the emperors burial structure is probably inferenced from west.

The First Emperors Mausoleum uses a step up structure that allows the soul to escalate to the top. Duan pointed out that the Mausoleumat Halicarnassus in Turkey is quite similar, gradually rising up in levels and was built only 100 years before the First Emperors life.

The structure of this tomb mound is very similar to what we find inside the First Emperors tomb mound, said Duan. Also, on top of this structure (at Halicarnassus) theres a chariot driven by four horses, we all know that (at) the First Emperors tomb complex there also is a chariot with four horses, he said.

DNA Evidence and foreign bricks designs

A few years ago Dr. Duans team unearthed 120 skeletons of workers who were buried near the Mausoleum. Among the finds were three skulls that were definitely not Chinese. Theres three skulls that are different from the rest of them which represents the Mongolian type of people, he said through a translator. The nose protrude (is) very extensive.

The first time DNA tests were performed they indicated that the individuals were from west Eurasia probably like a white people, however the second DNA test showed they were more similar to Mongolian.

Duan has an idea as what these workers might have been used for. His team discovered that the Terracotta Warriors pits used an interlocking rectangular brick pattern that had not been used in China before the time of the First Emperor. This kind of bricks has never been found in China, it was the first time used in the Terracotta Warrior pits, he said. The style used in the Terracotta Army pits of these rectangular brick (is) probably also inference from West Asia.

This means that these foreigners may have served as skilled labour bringing knowledge of this technology from Central or West Asia allowing the First Emperors officials to implement it.

Acrobats & Terracotta Entertainers

Another discovery that adds weight to Dr. Duans theory is a pit of terracotta entertainers, including strongmen, wrestlers and acrobats.

The acrobats were created in a lifelike way with their carving conveying a sense of movement. One example, that is now on display in Toronto, has an index finger pointing up, indicating that the figure is trying to perform a balancing act.

Dr. Duan believes that the acrobats the terracotta figures are modelled on,were probably not from China. According to the way they perform we speculate they are not indigenous to central China, but probably come from the south probably Burma area. This is an idea that if proven true will add another ethnic layer to what appears to have already been an ancient cosmopolitan project.

Restoration of the Royal Palace and Excavations at Ancient Qatna, Syria

This obsidian cup with gold accents was found inbetween human skeletal remains in the low vault of the Royal Palace. Photo by Marc Steinmetz, University of Tubingen After more than ten years of excavation and restoration, the ancient well-house at the Royal Palace of Qatna, Syria, has been officially opened to the public. It is the first phase of an ambitious project that will see the entire palace site opened for international tourism.

The ancient city of Qatna is located at Mishrifeh in western Syria, about 18 km north-east of the city of Homs and 200km from the modern-day Syrian capital Damascus. Bronze Age Qatna was strategically located at a the now vanished lake of Mishrifeh. In the 2nd millennium BC, itbecame the capital city of the Syrian kingdom, controlling the trade routes between Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean, and between Anatolia and Egypt.

Around 1650BC, Qatna’s Royal Palace was built. The palace, which served as living quarters and for administrative as well as religious purposes, is believed to have been constructed in less than fifty years. When completed, the monumental complex was more than 150 metres long and 100 metres wide. When the Hittites conquered Syria in 1340 BC, the palace was destroyed.

Slideshow: click theimages for a larger version

Qatna Archaeological Park, AD 2013

More than 3000 years later, archaeologists are ready to show the first results of large-scale restoration project that will create the ‘Qatna Archaeological Park’.

As part of the project, the ruins of the palace’s well-house and the surrounding area were covered by a 20 metres by 28 metres transparent construction. With its unusual deep well and 80-step basalt stairs, the unique well-house is a precious monument of Near Eastern Bronze Age architecture.

The renovation project a collaboration between the universities of Tubingen and Udine (their excellent project website), and Damscus is set to be completed in 2013.

Our generation has a moral responsibility to preserve the archaeological heritage for future generations, said Daniele Morandi Bonacossi from the University of Udine.

Especiallyfor countries rich in cultural heritage and with a booming economy, such as Syria, it is extremely important to establish a strong link between cultural heritage, archaeological resources and sustainable management of tourism in order to ensure the country’s growth, continued the co-director of the archaeological mission at Mishrife.

Archaeological Treasures from Qatna’s Tombs

Parallel with the restoration works, archaeological excavations were carried out at ancient Qatna this summer,focussing on further exposing the second tomb discoveredbeneath the Royal Palace in 2009.

Late summer, some remarkable finds were recovered from the intact not looted burials. Amongst theitems found in the grave chamber were an Egyptian cup of black translucent obsidian, gold bracelets, and neck rings decorates with gemstones including Baltic amber.

More than 100 skeletons were discovered at the cryptso far. Most of the skeletal remains, which likely belong to members from Qatna’s royal family or household, were grouped in wooden boxes. These ‘mass coffins’ were positioned one next to another, and sometimes even stacked.

One of the boxes contained the pelvic bone of a child, encircled by a wide bronze belt. Another held a smaller box, inlaid with ivory. The inlaid tiles decorated the wooden box on three sides and, fastened with bitumen, were still partly in their original positions.They show animal figures such as gazelles, monkeys and lions, a hybrid creature with a lion’s head and aneagle body, as well as humans. The box isa unique exampleofSyrian-Mesopotamian art of the late Middle Bronze Age.

A seal with an inscription of the Egyptian queen mother Ahmes-Nefertari (c. 1560 BC) was added to the artefacts allowing the dating of the tomb, of which the contents are an impressive testament to the close contacts between the Syrian Kingdom of Qatna and Egypt in the middle of the 2nd Millennium BC the Hyksos period and the beginning of the New Kingdom.

Promising Future Excavations

At the official opening ceremony for the well-house, a new excavation license was signed so we may look forward to more fascinating discoveries at Qatna being made in the next five years.

The renewal of the license allows for the excavations at the lower town and the satellite building east to the Royal Palace to continue, but also gives the dig teams access to a large new area at Qatna’s western gate which so far is unexplored and molto promettente.

Project Troia – Bronze Age Troy Just Keeps on Growing

The Bronze Age remains were found at the lower city, below the remains of Roman and Hellenistic houses. Above left, Dr Ernst Pernicka discusses the excavations with archaeologist Dr Catalin Pavel (in white shirt). - Photo by Gebhard Bieg, courtesy the University of Tubingen German archaeologists have made new discoveries at modern day Hisarlik, northwest Turkey ancient Troy.

The finds further confirm the area occupied duringthe Bronze Age was not limited to the citadel; Troy VI and VIIwere muchlarger than originally thought.

The three year research project at Troy lead by Prof. Ernst Pernicka, from the University of Tubingen‘s Institute of Pre- and Early History sees scholars focus on the analysis and publication of materials found since the university started excavations at the site in 1988.

But to investigate and resolve outstanding issues, Project Troia does undertake some smaller excavations.

These digs, in combination with geophysical surveying and the drilling of test holes, allow the team to narrow down the Bronze Age occupation belowTroy’scitadel more closely.

From the early Bronze Age until the Roman Period, at least nine cities their ruins stacked up to 15 metres high existed at the archaeological site; Troy I to IX.

This year, the team confirmed the layout of a one kilometre long Late Bronze Age defensive system a rock-cut ditch south of the Troy hillfort.

A gate, situated in the southeast area of the trench, is now fully excavated. It is located some 300 metres south of the citadel wall, and dated to about 1300 BC. The passage is about five metres wide, smaller than the ditch’s previously excavated southern gate.

Late Bronze Age layers came to light in the vicinity of the southeastern gate remains of walls, roads, storage pits and even an ancient oven. The finds suggest the area was occupied from about about 1700(TroyVI)to 1100 BC (Troy VII).Soil samples, taken 200 metres east of the citadel, reveal Bronze Age remains as well.

Further east, a second trench was discovered, significantly deeper and wider than the excavated ditch. This structure isn’t dated yet, but will be further examined next season.

Map of the 2010 excavations by the University of Tubingen at Hisarlik, Turkey - ancient Troy.

The archaeological site of Hisarlik was first excavated in the 19th century not without controversy by self-taught archaeologists Heinrich Schliemann.

Rather than being one ancient city, it consists of multiple layers of ruins. From the early Bronze Age (3rd millennium BC) until the Roman Period(1st century BC), at least nine cities Troy I to IX existed at the archaeological site; there ruins are stacked up to 15 metres high(nicely shown in the timeline on the University of Cincinnati’s website).

Which of these remains if any are those ofthe Homeric city of Troy, is still debated.

Schliemann nominated Troy I or II, but nowadays the Late Hittite Troy VII showing traces of fire and possibly warfare is seen as the most likely source of inspiration for the Trojan myth. Its remains are dated between the 13th and 10th century BC, where as ancient Greek historians place the Trojan War somewhere in the 12th to 14th century BC.

That Troy VI and VIIare far larger than originally thought not a mere hillfort, but strongholds surrounded by a settlement with its own defensive structures makes it more likely Hisarlik isindeed the site of the legendary Troy, or Ilion, the siege of whichwas described by Homer in the Iliad.

Angers’ Mithraeum: Sanctuary dedicated to Persian god Mithras discovered in France

Excavations executed by INRAP have revealed a Roman urban area and Mithraeum at Angers, France - Image Copyright Herv Paitier INRAP Archaeologists excavating a 9,000 square metre area at Angers, in the Loire District, France, have discovered the remains of the first mithraeum a sanctuary dedicated to the Indo-Iranian god Mithras in the west of France.

The cave sanctuary, a rectangular building, is dated to the third century AD.

The Mithraeum

The small, vaulted chapel in which worshippers hosted banquets and sacrifices dedicated to the god, is decorated with a starry sky.

The excavations revealed drums of columns perhaps statue bases, but possibly altars. A sort of vestibule allowed worshippers to don their ceremonial robes before entering the sanctuary.

The Mithraic Mysteries

It is believed the cult of Mithras was first introduced to the Roman Empire by soldiers coming from the East, somewhere at the end of the first century AD. Mithraism, a religion exclusive to men, first became popular with the elite, but quickly spread through all layers of society. Later it became known as a soldier’s cult. Shrines dedicated to Mithras are most often found at the borders of the Roman Empire, where large amounts of troops were stationed.

Reservoir of an anthropomorphic oil lamp, with Nubian head. - Image Copyright Herv Paitier INRAP Mithraism an individual religion, not a state cult, but itdid not conflict with the Imperial Cult (‘worshipthe Emperor’). Only later, when Mithraism became a competitor of early Christianity and despite, or maybe because certain similarities between both cults, the pagan religion was fiercely opposed. In 392 the cult was banned by Emperor Theodosius.

The Tauroctony &Ex Voto Offerings

Mithraism was an initiation cult, its secrets passed through oral tradition. Today, the only written testimonies about the mysterious cult scholars have were written by early Christian authors, who concievedMithras asthe devil’s representation on earth. This limited perception of the historical sources, makes the archaeological record relating to the cult all the more valuable.

At the sanctuary, a typical bas-relief of the god Mithras wearing his Phrygian cap shows him slaughtering a bull the so-called tauroctony. The god’s face was damaged in ancient times, possibly by early Christians trying to suppress the pagan cult.

The excavations further revealed scenes displaying dadophoroi (torch bearers), and miles (spearmen). Marble lion paws, as well as a pieces of a dog statue were unearthed from the cave, but are heavily fragmented. Likely these too were intentionally destroyed. Evidence of a fire was found, but it can not be confirmedif thefire was set on purpose, aimed at destroying the pagan sanctuary.

Among the finds in and aroundtheTemple of Mithrasis a unique zoomorph vase, probably used in purification rituals (see thisINRAP video). Further artefacts discovered at the site includeoil lamps, fragmentsof a lampcontaining Nubian terracotta figures, a bronze 4th century crucifix fibula and about 200 coins.

Detail of the dedication to the god Mithra on a Dechelette 72 vase, manufactured at Lezoux. - Image Copyright Herv Paitier INRAP Large quantities of cockerel bones (a favoured dish at the cultic banquets) were found spread inside and around the ancient temple.

A ceramic beaker offered by a certain Genialis, in the first half of the 3rd century reads:

DEO [INVIC]TO MYTRH[AE]…/…]VS GENIALIS CIVES MA […]VS EXVOTO D[…/…]RIBVS OMNIS LOCO OMNIS (…)

To the unconquered god Mithras, Genialis, citizen of , offers in ex voto (this vase).

A cartouche containing four lines in Greek was found on a piece of carved limestone decorated with palm leaves. It was partially deciphered, and indicates a dedication was made by a man named Theophilos (of Eastern origin) for the benefit of Retituitos (a name of Gallic consonance).

An Antique Quarter

At the ancient settlement the INRAP archaeologists also unearthed the remains of two major urban roads; the cardo (north-south oriented street) and decumanus (east-west oriented) axes. The earliest evidence of occupationfound so far is dated to the beginning of Emperor Augustus‘ reign, around 10 BC.

At the end of the first century, one or two domus (Roman villas), complete with hypocaust (floor heating) were constructed on the site.

Angers in Roman times was a fairly small oppidum, a fortified settlement probably no bigger than 80 hectares at its height with some 3,000 inhabitants. Its name, Juliomagnus, means ‘the market of Julius Caesar’.

The ancient city had its own amphitheatre, accommodating about 6,000 spectators, and Roman baths. In the fifth century AD, Angers became known as ‘civitas Andecavorum’ or ‘Andecavis’, after its Gaul inhabitants.

Mithraic temples are common in the Roman Empire; although very unevenly distributed, with considerable numbers found in Rome, Ostia, Numidia, Dalmatia, Britain (Londinium and Carrawburgh) and along the Rhine & Danube frontiers; while being much less common in Greece, Egypt, and Syria.

Taming the Wolf – Domesticating the Dog

The first evidence for domesticated dogs has just got earlier with the recent dating of a dogs skull and teeth from Kesslerloch Cave in Switzerland. That puts the transition from wolf to dog to over 14,000 years ago. Previously, the earliest date was from a single jawbone that was found in a human grave at Oberkassel, in Germany, dating to about 13,000 years-ago. (There are earlier dates claimed for the first definite identification of dogs but these are usually discounted by experts).

The finds from Switzerland were uncovered in 1873 but it was only last year that archaeologists at Tubingen University in Germany recognised that the remains came from a dog rather than a wolf. The dating carried out on a tooth has revealed the animal died between 14,000 and 14,600 BP (before present).

These early dates are curious, as hunting strategies at that time would not necessarily require the assistance of dogs. Studies from northern France show that hunting was ambush based with animals speared as they passed through natural bottlenecks in the landscape, such as the Ahrensburg Valley. Here, the use of a spear-thrower increased the effectiveness of the weapon and the migrating reindeer died in great numbers. Interestingly, some people engraved their spear-throwers with scenes of the hunt but none shows the appearance of dogs. Indeed, in such a massacre, it is difficult to see how dogs would fit in at all and, yet, the remains from Switzerland suggest that they existed by this time.

It is likely that animals that chose to live with humans bred with other animals that adopted a similar lifestyle, replicating the traits that made the animal tolerant of humans. Slowly, the camp-wolves became the camp-dogs. In effect, the dog domesticated itself.

Stalking, the hunting method where a dog might have proved invaluable, came later. The warming climate at the end of the Ice Age caused large game animals to either die-out or move north and it was red deer and wild boar that took advantage of the advancing tree cover to expand their range. The people of the time changed their hunting strategy accordingly and the bow and arrow now became the weapon of choice. Dogs would have proved invaluable for stalking, flushing, and tracking dying animals. This is the time that we might expect people to have actively sought to domesticate the dog but, from the evidence at Switzerland, it had already happened, presumably without any human intervention. The change from wolf to dog requires a different explanation.

It is likely that wolves had always been aware of humans in the landscape. Scavenging human kill sites would have been a sure way of obtaining food and it is likely that this became the main survival strategy for a few packs. Over time, they may have ventured closer to human camps and even started to forage leftovers or eat any excrement that lay nearby. The people at the camp may have welcomed this cleaning service and tolerated the presence of the wolves. They may have even kept other, more dangerous predators at a safe distance.

Over time, it is likely that animals that chose to live with humans bred with other animals that adopted a similar lifestyle, replicating the traits that made the animal tolerant of humans. Slowly, the camp-wolves became the camp-dogs. In effect, the dog domesticated itself.

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It is likely that the dogs did not remain in packs for long but divided themselves between the family groups of the hunters. Evidence from modern hunter-gather villages where semi-tame dogs roam, shows that these animals do not necessarily form packs but tend to organise themselves into groups of no more than three, which then adopt a particular dwelling (and its occupants) as their own. In the past, perhaps this was the reason that people began to interact with dogs on an individual basis and the first relationships, with which we are now so familiar, began.

A burial from Israel dating to around 11,000 BP contained an elderly woman with her hand resting on the flank of a puppy. This may be the first sign of the affection we still hold for dogs but it was not until much later, during the Mesolithic, that the esteem in which people held them becomes apparent.

In the earliest cemetery at Skateholm in southern Sweden, dating to around 5,000 BC, dogs were sometimes buried in the same graves as people. These were likely animals that were sacrificed to accompany their masters into the afterlife. Clearly, the dog was considered indispensable by some.

Other dogs were afforded their own grave and people gave them items such as tools and weapons that would usually be the preserve of a hunter. But then, perhaps this is exactly what these dogs were considered to be: hunters and, accordingly, they were buried as such.

At this time, grave wealth usually accumulated to the young and fit, likely reflecting their ability to provide food for the others. The dogs were no different: they provided food from the hunt and they were honoured in the same way. Moreover, this was a time before any other animal had been domesticated and the cognitive boundary between humans and animals was still fluid enough to be breached: sometimes human into animal and, on this occasion, animal into human. It was a very different way of seeing the world and is almost diametrically opposed to everything we think about animals.

It was not to last. Perhaps familiarity bred contempt, but in a later cemetery at Skateholm (and possibly dating to only a few hundred years after the first cemetery), dogs were afforded a separate area for their burials, before being excluded altogether. Dogs had moved from being equal to humans in the hunt to being subservient to their masters. Perhaps, as their usefulness increased, their worth actually diminished. We still retain something of this contradiction in our own relationship with dogs. They can be our closest companions but are also the source of our cruellest insults. A bitch can be both our best friend or our worst enemy.

There is even evidence that the minds of dogs have evolved since they have been interacting with humans. Observing and identifying the attention state of others was thought to be the sole preserve of humans and yet it appears to be something dogs can also accomplish. Anyone who has had their dog watch their every move when they walk towards the dog lead will know how this appears.

Our relationship with dogs has come a long way since the first wolves started to follow the camps of our Palaeolithic forebears. We may never know for sure what made these wild animals befriend us and change to become an altogether different species but I am sure that I am not alone in being extremely grateful that they did.

Ancient Egyptian tomb of Karakhamun at Assasif: a major tomb for a minor priest?

TT223 Tomb of ancient Egyptian priest Karakhamun at Assasif Archaeologists have rediscovered the ‘lost’ tomb an ancient Egyptian priest at the Theban Necropolis in Egypt.It was announced today by Egypt’s Minister of Culture, Farouk Hosny, that the team excavating and conservating the tomb has now cleared the burial shaft of tomb and reached its burial chamber.

The tomb is located at Qurnet Murai, south Assasif, on the west bank of the Nile opposite to Luxor, and belonged to a priest named Karakhamun. It dates to the 25th Dynasty (the Reign of Shabaqo, circa 700BC) and is referenced as TT223 (Theban Tomb 223). The el-Assasif area is a well known archaeological site, containing nobles tombs from the New Kingdom, as well as the 25-26th Dynasties.

Dr Zahi Hawass, Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), said that the team discovered the burial chamber of Karakhamun at the bottom of an 8m deep burial shaft. He added it is in very good condition and contains beautifully painted scenes.

The entrance to the chamber is decorated with an image of Karakhamun and the ceiling is decorated with several astrological scenes, including a depiction of the sky goddess, Nut.

Ancient Egyptian Priest Karkhamun

Not much is known about Karakhamun. There is no information about his family, and he himself did not seem to have any important administrative positions. His priestly title, First ‘k Priest, does not signify any particular importance.

Yet Karkhamun’s tomb consists of two spacious pillared halls and a five-room burial chamber, and isthe largest tomb excavated at the South Assasif Necropolis so far. This suggests he had close connections to the royal court or family.

As we know only little about his life, the tomb’s dating to the 25th Dynasty or Nubian dynasty, when Egypt ‘s rulers originated from the Kingdom of Kush is based largely on the priest’s Nubian name.

The tomb’s architectural features as far as they are known also confirm this date. Karkhamun’s serpentine shabti is of a Nubian type with facialeatures that suggest a pre-Taharqo date, probably Shabaqo, writes the South Asasif Conservation Project (ACP) on its website.

TT223 Discovered Thrice

After its initial discovery in the 1820s by Wilkinson, Hey and Burton and again in the 1940s by Lepsius the tomb of priest Karkhamun at Assasif was left open and unprotected. It was photographed in the 1970s by Eigner. Some time after Eigner’s visit,its ceiling collapsed and the tomb became buried once more by the sand.

It was considered ‘lost’ until in 2001 archaeologists started exavating what was a mere crack in the sand,and foundwall carvings with a life-size figure of Karkhamun in front of an offering table.

In 2006, an Egyptian-American team lead by Dr. Elena Pischikova started carrying out conservation works at the tomb as part of the ACP.

Because of the exceptional preservation of colour of the wall paintings, and the quality of the scenes, Dr Pischikova believes the tomb of Karakhamun could be one of the most beautiful tombs from Dynasty 25.

Sagalassos Archaeological Project Digs Up Oldest Roman Baths in Asia Minor

Sagalassos Roman Baths Turkey Anatolia At the ancient city of Sagalassos, Turkey, archaeologists have discovered the oldest Roman baths in Asia Minor known to date.

The new find means the Capito Baths in Miletus, built during the reign of Emperor Claudius (41-54 AD),have to concede theirposition as the oldest known Roman bathing complex in Anatolia.

Oldest Roman Bathsin Asia Minor

The ‘Old Bath’ was discovered at Sagalassos, an ancient city from Hellenistic and Roman times in southwestern Turkey. They were locatedbelow the previously unearthed Imperial Baths, dated to120-165 AD.

The newly discovered bathing complex is much older and smaller than the Imperial Baths which have a surface area of more than 5,000 square metres and is dated to 10-30 AD, though the Old Bath was probably built somewhat earlier, during the reign of Augustus or Tiberius.

The approx. 3 metre high south wall of the heating room of the bathing complex. Warm air was blown under the floor of the middle apsidal space or ‘caldarium’ (hot water pool).

The Old Baths measure 32.5 by 40 metres and are far better preserved than was originally thought. The complex walls must have been at least 12 metres high, of which 8.5 metres remain erect today.

When Hadrian selected Sagalassosas the centre of the Imperial cult for all of Pisidia, to which the city belonged this included the organisation of festivals and games (agones).

These attracted thousands, making a new urban infrastructure necessary. In order to accommodate the Pisidian visitors to the events, the Old Baths were replaced by the larger Imperial Baths.

Roman Style Bathing

The Roman bathing habits consisted of a succession of a warm water pool, a hot water pool and a cold water pool.

Each pool of these pools (a ‘piscina’ or ‘natatio’) was housed in a separate space; a tepidarium, a caldarium and a frigidarium, respectively.

The Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project

The Belgian Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project directed by Professor Marc Waelkens from the University of Leuven this past summer (photographs from the 2010 season) also revealed the faade of an important public building dating from the reign of Emperor Augustus (25 BC – 14 AD). It may have been the town hall of Sagalassos.

The team also concluded that the triumphal arch, until now thought to pay tribute to Caligula, was actually erected in honour of his uncle and successor Claudius (41-54 AD) and Claudius brother Germanicus, Caligulas father.

The reconstructed Antonine Nymphaeum, at Sagalassos' Upper Agora. The water drops down from a height of 4.50 metres, into a 81 cubic metres reservoir.

Anastylosis: Antoine Nymphaeum

At the end of this seasons excavations, an Antonine Nymphaeum was inaugurated at the Upper Agora of the Sagalassos site.

The reconstruction of the fountain was an ‘anastylosis’ project, whereby a structure is restored using the original architectural elements to the greatest degree possible.

The monumentwas constructed around 160AD,using 7 different kinds of stones. The restored fountain contains more than 85% of its original building blocks. Where needed for stability reasons, missing stones were replaced by blocks fashioned using antique technologies; the same way they would have been made 2,000 years ago.

Now, the9 metres high and 28 metres longAntonine Nymphaeum,is againfed by one of its original water canals. It collapsed when earthquakes destroyed Sagalassos in the7th century AD.

Aerial Photography of Drought-hit Britain Uncovers Hidden Archaeological Sites

The sunny, dry spells of May and June over Britain were enjoyed immensely by the populace, but it wasn’t just Brits who were taking advantage of the soaring temperatures. Archaeologists were taking to the skies to observe cropmarks which occur when wheat or barley crops grown over ancient buried sites at a different rate. The aerial surveys have produced many new discoveries, including newly-discovered Roman and prehistoric settlements, representing the most successful summer flights since the drought of 1976.

Results of the flight have revealed the Roman fort in Newton Kyme, North Yorkshire to be bigger than previously thought, with a larger, stronger defence built in 290AD covering seven hectares, with stone walls up to three metres thick and a ditch 15 metres wide. Large ditches of the defences were visible, along with many signs of buildings, roads and other activity within the fort.

Click the images to see a larger version.

New discoveries included a Roman fort discovered in Dorest, a region where only three other known forts are known. The fort, near Bradford Abbas, is a lightly built defensive enclosure that provided basic protection for Roman soldiers while on manoeuvres in the 1st century AD. It was noticed during June after three sides became visible in the drought-ridden fields of crops. Flights over the Holderness area of the East Riding uncovered about 60 new sites including livestock and settlement enclosures, mainly from the prehistoric era.

The summer of the Icelandic ash cloud which saw many flights across Britain (including new flights to Iraq) grounded surprisingly proved advantageous to the aerial researchers, who conducted their flights using piston-powered Cessna aircraft, which were unaffected by the flight ban. The quieter skies meant flights could be carried out over airspace normally used by traffic to Gatwick, Standsted, Bristol and Luton.

Dave MacLeod, English Heritage Senior Investigator based in York, said: Its hard to remember a better year. Cropmarks are always at their best in dry weather, but the last few summers have been a disappointment. This year we have taken full advantage of the conditions. We try to concentrate on areas that in an average year dont produce much archaeology. Sorties to the West Midlands and Cumbria, together with more local areas such as the Yorkshire Wolds and Vale of York, have all been very rewarding.

Damian Grady, a Swindon-based English Heritage senior investigator added: ”It will take some time to take stock of all the sites we have photographed, but we expect to discover several hundred new sites across England.”

Roman Lantern Discovery by Metal Detectorist Sheds Light on Suffolk’s Ancient History

The only complete example of a Roman lantern to have been found in Britain was discovered in Autumn 2009 by a metal detector user. Danny Mills found the large bronze object whilst scanning a field near Sudbury, and immediately notified the discovery to the Suffolk Archaeological Unit. The find is significant as only fragments of similar lanterns are held at the British Museum, and the closest complete example was excavated in Pompeii. The interest in the lantern even earned it a feature in the BBCseries “Digging for Britain”!

The Roman lantern dates from between 43-300AD, and is similar to a modern hurricane lamp, with the naked flame protected by a thin sheet of horn which would have been scraped and shaped until it was see-through and then wrapped around the bronze frame of the lantern to protect the flame from the elements. As the horn shield is an organic material, it would have rotted away over time and did not survive when the discovery was made. The flame of the lantern would have been ignited by lighting a wick placed in olive oil, held at the base of the lamp, in a similar way as a modern tea light candle.

The lamp, found on land belonging to Mr and Mrs PMillar, has been donated to the Ipswich Museum, where work began immediately to stabilise and protect the fragile lantern from further decay. Of particular note is the chains which the lantern would have been suspended from were still intact, and look and move as any modern chain would rather than corroding into a metal lump over the centuries. Suffolk is known to have been a hot spot for Roman villas and country estates in the 2nd Century AD, and it is thought this lamp could have been used to move between a villa and an outhouse during the dark.

HD Video: Roman Lantern sheds light on the past

Once the lamp had undergone conservation, it was then observed under microscopes to prepare it for public display. Emma Hogarth, Conservator at Colchester and Ipswich Museums said, It has been a pleasure to work on such a magnificent object. The generosity of Mr and Mrs Miller and the actions of Danny Mills has ensured that it is now on public display and can be enjoyed by all visitors to Ipswich Museum.

The discovery is yet further proof that amazing objects from our cultural heritage still remain undiscovered under our feet, and it is not just archaeologists and museums who play the role in saving our past, but everyone can participate.

Maya Pool the Size of a Football Field Discovered in Uxul, Mexico

The German-Mexican excavation team exposes the floor of the Maya pool, covered in ceramic shards. These would have sealed the reservoir. - Image copyright Institute for Ancient American Studies, University of Bonn Archaeologists digging at the ancient Maya city of Uxul, Mexico, havelocated an artificial lake the size of a football field. The two metres deep pool its floor a mosaic of ceramic shards was constructed about 1,500 years ago.

Uxul is located on the Mexican Yucatn Peninsula, near the Guatamalan border and only twentysix kilometres southwest of Unesco World Heritage Site Calakmul. German and Mexican archaeologists started systematically excavating and mapping its ruins in 2009.

In doing so, we stumbled upon two square water reservoirs, each about 100 metres by 100 metres, says Dr Iken Paap from the University of Bonn.

Massive pools for storing drinking water called ‘aguadas’ are well known from other Maya cities. What makes these newly discovered reservoirs and exceptional find, is that the Uxul peoples seem to have devised an ingenious and previously unkown way to seal their water storage systems.

We’ve carried out atrial excavation, right in the middle of one of the reservoirs, explains Nicolaus Seefeld.We found that the floor, at two metres deep, was almost completely covered with ceramic shards probably pottery fragments. If it is like this throughout the entire aguada, we don’t know yet.

Click the map to see a larger version. The two artificial lakes are marked in blue on this map of Uxul’s ruins. Both measure about 100×100 metres (a football field is about 90 by 120 metres.) – Image copyright Institute for Ancient American Studies, University of Bonn.

If so, the pools are an extraordinary find not at least because of the sheer amount of pottery needed; each of the Uxul aguadascould contain approximately ten Olympic swimming pools.

It is possible future excavations will reveal additional reservoirs. The aguadas needed to store enough water for Uxul’smore than2,000 residents to make it through the three-month dry season.

The German-Mexican excavation team alsofound Uxul’s first intact graves.

From these, and new research on the water provisions and vegetation history, we expect to gain new insights into the inhabitants of this Maya city, says Bonn University’s Dr Nikolai Grube.

All burials found so far were destroyed by grave robbers in search for pottery or jade.

Analysis of the different layers at Uxul shows it was populated throughout the different periods of Maya civilization. We excavated more than three meters deep, revealinga sequence of layersranging from the late Preclassic to the late Classic or Postclassic period,” tells Dr Paap.Inscriptionshave revealedthat around 630 AD, the city of Uxul was annexedto the kingdom of Calakmul.

The name ‘Uxul’, meaning’at the end’, was given to the city by explorers Karl Ruppert and John Denison when they tired and ill after a long expedition through the Yucan Peninsula’s rainforest discovered the ruins in 1934. Not much has changed since the thirties; Uxul is still at the end of the world, far away from modern roads and cities (photographs from the 2010 excavation season seem to confirm this).

To reach the ruins, it takes travelling 120km of jungle paths through the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, explains Dr Iken.

A thousand years ago, Uxul wasn’t isolated at all. Excellently positioned between the great Mayan cities of El Mirador in the South and Clakmul, the city was trading as far as modern-day southern Guatemalaand the highlands of central Mexico.