Roman Africa: Preserved by the Sahara

The Beginnings of Roman Africa

The history of the Roman empire in northern Africa begins definitively with the bloody and cruel sack of Carthage in 146 BC. Before that, the northern coast of Africa was the domain of Phoenician, Punic and Greek settlers and traders. The size and might of Carthage was felt as a threat to Rome's sphere of power and after two attempts, the third Punic war successfully brought the thriving Carthaginian civilisation to its knees.

During the Republic, there were just seven Roman cities in north Africa. Roman expansion into Africa came at a later date and the first century AD saw many more cities founded or colonised under Claudius and then under Trajan. It wasn't however until the rule of Septimus Severus, born in Leptis Magna in 145 AD, that that city in particular, and the province of Africa generally, reached their peak of Roman prosperity.

By the third century AD, there were between 500 and 600 cities throughout the area, although many of these were small with fewer than 15,000 inhabitants. The biggest cities were Carthage (completely rebuilt by the Romans) with up to one million, while it is thought about 80,000 people lived in Leptis Magna. Some of the port towns, such as Sabratha, had between 20,000 and 40,000, as did some of the inland towns such as Volubilis, Juba's old capital.

They Came, They Saw, They Built

While many of the towns and cities that came under Roman control were founded many centuries earlier by the Phoenicians and the Greeks, there were also many 'new' Roman towns built. These Roman-designed centres showed all the typical signs of Roman thought and sophistication, with ingenious attention to comfort, sanitisation and commodity. Planned cities such as Timgad and Volubilis (the latter was rebuilt by the Romans on the site of a previous Carthaginian settlement) were built with subterranean water channels incorporated into the streets plans and water supplies and cisterns in every house.

The Romans valued the supply of fresh water as highly in their provinces as they did at home, although it was probably even more of an essential commodity in the arid climate of northern Africa. Public baths were a focal point for Roman towns in Africa as they were elsewhere and every town or city would have at least one – Timgad had 13, for example. These public baths brought a substantial change to the lifestyle of the Phoenicians, Greeks and Berbers who found themselves under Roman rule, and they made life bearable for the Roman colonisers by providing a cool, shady public meeting place. The baths also ensured fresh water supplies and encouraged personal hygiene.

There are impressive remains of public baths at Leptis Magna, while the Antonine baths at Carthage, with their stunning setting overlooking the Mediterranean and unique architectural design, still show signs of the opulence of their heyday. The latter were built between 146 and 162 AD and were completed during the rule of Antoninus Pius. It is evident that the architects of these public baths were primarily concerned with the functionality (ie, water supplies) and the interior design and comfort.

Architects in Roman Africa also applied themselves to designing theatres and amphitheatres. The theatres, with their emphasis on acoustics for performances of plays, orations and choral events, were often cut into a hill and there were more than 20 in Rome's African provinces. The theatre in Sabratha, in modern-day Libya, is built up rather than cut into a slope but, having been recently restored, it is an extremely impressive monument. Amphitheatres were more prevalent than theatres and it is thought that by the third century AD nearly all Roman towns in Africa would have one for public gladiatorial performances, races or other sporting events. One of the most famous amphitheatres is in the ancient Roman town of Thysdrus – modern-day El Djem.

In all, the Romans occupied the northern coastal area of modern day Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria and Libya for almost 600 years, from the last Punic war of 146 BC, up until the invasion of the Vandals in 439 AD. During that era they succeeded in suppressing threats to the empire from the Phoenicians and the Numidians, not to mention the Egyptians. They were also able to take advantage of northern Africa's fertile climate, which provided huge exports of grain as well as olive oil to feed the Roman empire.

But what remains of all this? Africa's climate has changed significantly since the era in which it was called the 'granary of Rome', and the encroaching Sahara acts as a perfect preservative for many Roman ruins. Many of them are now listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Here is an overview of the African countries most affected by the Roman Empire: 

1. Tunisia

There are three Roman sites in modern-day Tunisia that attract archaeologists and tourists alike. Carthage was the biggest Roman city in Northern Africa and at its peak it had about one million inhabitants. Of course, its history is bloody. Up until the Roman destruction of Carthage, at the end of the Punic wars in 146 BC, the city had been the settlement of the Phoenicians from the eastern Mediterranean and Berbers from the north African interior. In 146 BC, the old Punic city was almost razed to the ground and most of its inhabitants killed or enslaved. The Romans eventually rebuilt Carthage and it became the second biggest city in the western empire, with half a million inhabitants. It was home to Augustine, Tertullian and Donatus. The circular Punic port, extensive baths and amphitheatre are still visible.

The modern town of El Djem, known as Thysdrus in Roman times, is famous for its Roman amphitheatre, the best example of its kind outside Italy. The amphitheatre was built by Gordian I in 230 AD. It is actually the third amphitheatre to be built in Thysdrus – some remains of the first two can be seen a few miles outside the centre. The town was built on a former Punic settlement and started to prosper from the olive oil trade in the second century AD, particularly during the rule of Hadrian (117-138 AD).

Dougga, or Thugga, started its existence as a Berber fort but by the second century BC it was the seat of the Numidian king Massinissa – at least until the Romans arrived at the end of that century. Its heyday was during the Roman occupation when the population rose to about 10,000. Its theatre was built in 168 AD. The city then declined, under Byzantine and then Vandal rule. The Capitol is probably its most impressive reminder of its Roman days, built in 166 AD with 10 metre high walls which are a fine example of opus africanum (a building technique in which large and small blocks are used together).

2. Libya

After Carthage and Alexandria, Leptis Magna was the biggest Roman settlement in Northern Africa. At its height it had as many as 80,000 inhabitants. It was settled at least in 1100 BC by Phoenicians  and fell under Roman rule after the third Punic war, although it didn't rise to prominence until the rule of its most famous citizen, Septimus Severus, between 193-211 AD. He contributed many of the town's public buildings and much of the architecture bore similarities to Syrian towns of that time. Its ruins include an Arch dedicated to Severus, the theatre, amphitheatre, basilica, hippodrome for chariot racing and a marketplace.

Sabratha, like nearby Leptis Magna, was at its most prosperous during the Severan period and its enduring monument from that time is the third century theatre with its dramatic three-storey, pillared backdrop. Other attractions include a basilica and Roman villas with mosaic floors.

The ruins of the ancient city of Cyrene are near modern-day Shahhat and are currently being excavated. The city's most impressive monuments are the temples of Apollo, Zeus and Demeter. It was founded by Greek settlers and became an important Greek centre for trade and culture. During the period of Hadrian and Trajan, the famous Jews of Cyrene staged their revolt, killing 200,000 Romans and Greeks. 

3. Algeria

In 100 AD the emperor Trajan founded the colonial town of Thamugadi, today known as Timgad, in Algeria. Built on a grid plan, the town's baths, library – the only remaining Roman library known in northern Africa – and well preserved theatre are some of the buildings that remain. Timgad is particularly noteworthy for its triumphal arch dedicated to Trajan – the triple arch is one of many arches in northern Africa.

Another well preserved example of a triumphal arch is at Djemila, known as Cuicul to the Romans. This hill-top town is a good example of Roman architecture and town-planning adapted to a mountainous environment, sitting at 900m above sea level. Its remains include an amphitheatre, forums, baths, streets and houses. It was built as a military base by the Romans in the first century AD and was abandoned towards the end of the Roman empire. Although Cuicul began its life as a garrison town, it later became well-known as a thriving artistic culture where a tradition of mosaic artists established itself. The museum at modern-day Djemila has some good examples of this African school of Roman art.

The maritime settlement of Tipasa was originally a Phoenician and Punic trading post until it was conquered by the Romans and colonised by Claudius in the middle of the first century AD. It was taken over by the Vandals in 484 AD and from then on went into decline. One of its most interesting monuments is the Kabr Arroumia, the mausoleum of the royal family of Mauritania.

4. Morocco

Volubilis was the administrative centre of the Roman province in Mauretania Tingitania in modern-day Morocco. It was built on the site of a previous Carthaginian settlement, dating back to the third century BC and was thought to have been taken over by the Romans in 40 BC. When the Romans retreated from most of Mauretania Tingitania in the third century AD, they did not abandon Volubilis, although it was then destroyed at the end of the fourth century by an earthquake.


Timeline of Roman Settlements in Africa

1100 BC                    Leptis Magna founded by Phoenicians
814 BC                      Carthage founded by Pheonician traders
630 BC                      Cyrene founded by Greek traders and became the principal town of ancient Libya
500 BC                      Sabratha established as a Phoenician port
250 BC                     Cyrene becomes part of Ptolemaic Egypt
146 BC                     Carthage sacked and Rome invades, taking many towns in north Africa under its control
96 BC                       Cyrene becomes Roman territory
40 BC                       Volubilis, a Carthaginian settlement, taken over by the Romans
41-54 AD                  Tipasa is colonised during the reign of Claudius
1st century AD           Djemila, or Cuicul, is founded by the Romans
100 AD                     Timgad, or Thamugadi, is founded by Trajan
166-8 AD                 The capitol and theatre at Dougga are built
150-25 AD               Sabratha is rebuilt by the Romans
193 AD                     Leptis Magna rises to prominence when (its native) Septimus Severus becomes emperor
230 AD                     The amphitheatre at El Djem is built by Gordian I
235-284 AD              Leptis Magna suffers during the 'third century crisis', in which disease, economic depression, war and invasion take their toll.
262 AD                     Cyrene damaged by an earthquake but is then rebuilt, although by now it is in decline
350 AD                     Leptis Magna still in decline and parts of it are abandoned.
365 AD                      Sabratha and Cyrene damaged by earthquake.
439 AD                      Carthage, Leptis Magna and the rest of Tripolitania are invaded by the Vandals. Gaiseric, king of the Vandals and the Alans, takes control of Carthage
484 AD                    The Vandals take over Tipasa and many of its inhabitants flee or are persecuted
5th century AD         Timgad is sacked by the Vandals
5-6th century AD      Djemila, Cuicul, is abandoned
523 AD                     Berbers sack Leptis Magna
543 AD                     Berber chiefs massacred at Leptis Magna
7th century AD         Timgad is abandoned
650 AD                    Arabs conquer Tripolitania, but Leptis Magna is almost completely abandoned.
698 AD                    Carthage destroyed by Muslim conquerors

 

Photos by Feghoul Toufik, Nikos Pantazis, Audrey Bossuat a.k.a. Pounkie and Feghoul Toufik respectively.

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