3 Simple Rules of Being a Hero: Fatal Attractions of Gods and Heroes in Classical Greek Mythology
Heroes: Mortals and Myths in Ancient Greece, an international loan exhibition organized by the Walters Art Museum and now on display in their galleries in Baltimore, Maryland, explores the continuing human need for heroes. Unlike modern superheroes who are celebrated in their own "lifetime" for using special powers or abilities to vanquish equally superhuman villains, ancient Greek heroes could not gain fame or "kleos" until they suffered and died. Even then, it was only after undergoing an ordeal deemed outside the usual challenges of human existence that they earned the title 'hero'. We take a look at some of the esssentials of Greek heroism to find out just how hard is it to be a hero.
Dr. Gregory Nagy, Director of the Harvard Center for Hellenic Studies in Washington DC, has outlined three characteristics of a hero, which are detailed in the box below.
In the in The Concept of Hero, he explains that:
"The hero must struggle against the fear of death, in order to achieve the most perfect death... the songs sung for heroes and the cult honors given to them in worship and festivals, including athletic festivals, celebrated in their honor, are an attempt to provide compensation for the death of the hero. Because this death can never be made up for completely, however, these honors are considered ongoing and never-ending. they are performed on a seasonally recurring basis and those who participate in the worship believe that it will continue forever, thus providing a way for the hero to be immortalized, to live on forever."
Let's examine a few of these legendary figures to see how these heroes live up to the rules.
A Hero for all Seasons
The three rules of being a hero, according to Dr Nagy:
- Heroes are extreme in both good and bad ways
- Heroes are out of step with the normal flow of time (until the moment of their death)
- Heroes have a ritually antagonistic relationship with a god or goddess that most resembled them (this is called the hero's "fatal attraction")
Herakles aka Heracles, or Hercules in the Roman pantheon of heroes, is probably the most famous on the list and deserving of the number one spot. His epic strength was his defining trait and he used it to accomplish a number of his famous twelve labours including the slaying of the Nemean lion and the Hydra as well as cleaning the foul stables of King Augeias by changing the course of two rivers.
But Herakles was also extreme in less desirable ways. When Herakles set off to capture the Erymanthean boar, he encountered a band of centaurs. The centaurs welcomed him since Herakles was mentored by the centaur Chiron. But the centaurs, who had learned they went wild when they drank wine, had locked a store of wine away. Herakles, hearing this, insisted on drinking some of it. This would be like swilling liquor in front of an AA meeting. The moment is aptly dramatised by Padraic Colum in The Golden Fleece:
"Heracles drank wine and spilled it. Then the centaurs that were without smelt the wine and came hammering at the door, demanding the drafts that would make them wild. Heracles came forth to drive them away. They attacked him. Then he shot at them with his unerring arrows and he drove them away. Up the mountain and away to far rivers the centaurs raced, pursued by Heracles with his bow. One was slain, Pholus, the centaur who had entertained him. By accident Heracles dropped a poisoned arrow on his foot."
As the son of Zeus and offspring of one of the god's numerous trysts with human females, Herakles was, of course, despised by Zeus' wife Hera. Myth tells us that Herakles was unnaturally inflamed by Hera in the first place when he committed the terrible act of killing his children but his lack of "anger management" is a recurring theme in many of his escapades. His rage reflected Hera's own legendary tirades so in this way Herakles resembled his goddess antagonist.
Looking for Love in all the Wrong Places
His "perfect" death took place when he donned a robe tainted with the cursed blood of the centaur Nessus, who Herakles had slain by the river Evenus when he thought Nessus, who had agreed to ferry Herakles' wife across the water, had instead sought to ravage her. Herakles' wife had been misled by the dying Nessus into thinking the blood would simply make Herakles love her more but instead it brought about his glorious death in flames which released his spirit to the gods who took him to Mount Olympus where he became immortal. So a being whose entire life was spent in repentence for rage was symbolically "consumed" by love.
Cadmus and the Cow
Now let's examine one of the lesser known heroes, Cadmus. Cadmus, was the son of Phoenician king Agenor of Tyre and brother to Europa, who was abducted by Zeus when Zeus transformed himself into a beautiful bull and bore the maiden away. Cadmus and his brothers were sent by his father to retrieve Europa but they wandered fruitlessly. In frustration, Cadmus sought help from the oracle at Delphi.
"Cadmus, in vain you travel round and round ... You seek a bull which no cow ever calved; you seek a bull which no mortal knows how to find ... Europa's bridegroom no drover knows how to drive ... he is ordered by no whip...he strains his neck for Love alone ..." (The Pythian priestess to Cadmus. Nonnos, Dionysiaca 4.293).
N.S. Gill over at About.com recently gave us her opinion of the top 10 mythical Greek heroes:
1. Herakles
2. Achilles
3. Theseus
4. Odysseus
5. Perseus
6. Jason
7. Bellerophon
8. Orpheus
9. Cadmus
10. Atalanta
The oracle told him to give up his quest and follow a special cow, with a half moon on her flank that would lead him to a site where he should found a new city. Cadmus found the specially marked cow and followed it to Boeotia where it laid down at a spot that would become the great ancient city of Thebes.
As Cadmus began to prepare the cow for sacrifice, he sent his companions to the nearby Castalian Spring for water. When his companions failed to return, Cadmus went to the spring and found his seared companions at the mouth of a cave occupied by a fierce dragon who breathed poisonous fumes. He threw a stone at the creature but the stone merely bounced off. Then he drew his spear and flung it with such strength and martial skill that it pierced the beast's thick scales and its black blood gushed from the wound. Roaring, the serpent burst from the cave and reared its deadly head to smite Cadmus but Cadmus, ever the stalwart warrior, stood fast and drove his sword into the creature's throat.
Now, hopefully, I've given you enough clues for you to tell which god was going to become Cadmus' "fatal attraction" - the god most resembling Cadmus, with his awesome martial skills, of course, Ares the god of war. For, the sacred dragon was beloved of Ares who would demand eight years of service in recompense for its death.
But for now, Cadmus was without comrades and needed help to found his city. Athena appeared to him and told him to retrieve the beast's teeth. She then told him to sow half the dragon's teeth in the earth. (Cadmus gave the other half of the teeth to Athena who would eventually pass them on to Jason so Ray Harryhausen could give us the wonderful scene of battling skeletons in the classic film "Jason and the Argonauts".)
Friends or Enemies?
Armed warriors sprang up from the places where Cadmus planted the teeth. But, the sown men (sparti) were eager to begin slaughter and could just as easily kill Cadmus as help him. So, he tossed stones among them and each man thought one of the others had stricken him with a rock so they started killing each other. Only five of the sparti survived to become the founding noble familes of Thebes.
Cadmus was told he had to enslave himself to Ares for eight years as penance for slaying the sacred dragon before he could resume his previous life and marry his beloved Harmonia, daughter of Ares and Aphrodite.
Like Herakles, too, Cadmus continues to suffer for his transgression even after his eight years of service to Ares ends. He was rewarded with the hand of Harmonia but the newlyweds receive a fated gift of a robe and necklace.
The hero must struggle against the fear of death, in order to achieve the most perfect death. The songs sung for heroes and the cult honors given to them in worship and festivals, including athletic festivals, celebrated in their honor, are an attempt to provide compensation for the death of the hero.
"Harmonia received from Cadmus, as a wedding present, a Robe and a Necklace. The only certain [fact] about the origin of these items is that they came from the gods. It is said sometimes that Hephaestus wrought the Necklace, and that he himself gave it to Cadmus. Others say that it came from Europa (perhaps they knew of each other after all), and that she had received it from Zeus. Still others affirm that Athena provided the renowned Necklace and Robe, and also a flute. But there are those who assert that the golden Necklace was the present that Aphrodite gave Harmonia. The golden Necklace has been described thoroughly, but, briefly stated, it represented an amphisbaina, which is a two headed serpent, with open mouths as if hissing. The two mouths on each side enclosed with their jaws a golden eagle upright, its wings covered with yellow jasper and moonstone. The whole clever work was set with sparkling gems in masterly refinement." - Carlos Parada, The Greek Mythology Link
Be Careful What You Wish For
This robe and necklace was thought to be the source of a series of misfortunes including murders, wars and the destruction of the very city Cadmus founded. Dethroned by his own grandson, Cadmus and Harmonia were left homeless to wander the wild northern forests until Cadmus, weary and plagued by infirmities and his dragon's curse called out to the gods "If a serpent be so dear to the gods, would I were a serpent rather than a man". He immediately sank to the ground and was transformed into a serpent. Seeing her husband in his new form, Harmonia, too, pleaded to be transformed as well. Her prayer was answered, too, and they were sent to live for all eternity in the Elysian fields.
According to Ovid, Athena had foretold Cadmus' ultimate fate:
"Why, Cadmus, do you gaze on the serpent you have slain? You too shall be a serpent for men to gaze on." (Athena to Cadmus. Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.97).
Would we term this end a "perfect death"? To be beloved of the gods for all eternity would probably be viewed as a perfect end by the ancient Greeks.
A Woman in a Man's World
Lastly, let's examine the only female hero in the list, Atalanta. Atalanta was abandoned as an infant because her father desired a son. But, she was found and nursed by a she-bear until ultimately rescued by hunters. She grew up beautiful and fast and could outwrestle and outrace even the most athletic men. The hunters that raised her taught her the use of weapons and she could fiercely defend herself. Like Herakles, she had a run-in with lascivious centaurs who attempted to rape her. But she fought them off then shot them down.
Many legends involving Atalanta recount her exploits as the only female Argonaut. She actually first met Jason during the hunt for the Calydonian Boar.
"It chanced, then, that OEneus (father of Meleager), as he offered sacrifices to the gods, omitted to pay due honors to Diana; and she, indignant at the neglect, sent a wild boar of enormous size to lay waste the fields of Calydon. Its eyes shone with blood and fire, its bristles stood like threatening spears, its tusks were like those of Indian elephants. The growing corn was trampled, the vines and olive trees laid waste, the flocks and herds were driven in wild confusion by the slaughtering foe." - Bulfinch's Mythology, Chapter XVIII
She was the only woman to take part in the hunt that had attracted a number of famous mythological heroes including Jason, Theseus, Peleus (father of Achilles) and Telemon (father of Ajax). But it is Atalanta's arrow that draws first blood. Meleager then dispatches the animal with a flurry of spear thrusts but awards the head and hide to Atalanta. Meleager's uncles are horrified that a mere woman should be given the spoils of such a celebrated hunt. They wrench the prize from Atalanta enraging Meleager who draws his sword and cuts them down. Although Meleager has committed the crime, Atalanta is doomed as the woman who incited him to such an act (remember Helen of Trojan War fame a generation later?). Meleager's mother must choose between the love for her son or familial duty to her slain brothers. Ultimately she sucumbs to her family's cries for vengeance and brings about the death of her own son. Although Atalanta escapes immediate punishment, her ability to incite such reckless love will ultimately lead her to a confrontation with who else - the goddess of love Aphrodite (Venus)..
Many suitors subsequently seek Atalanta's hand but she carefully preserves her virginity and asks the oracle at Delphi for advice.
The Bane of Atalanta's Life?
"A husband will be your bane, O Atalanta; flee from the intercourse of husband; and yet you will not flee, and, though living, you will lose yourself." (The Oracle to Atalanta. Ovid, Metamorphoses 10.565).
Terrified by the oracle's prediction, Atalanta establishes a cruel contest for any who seek her hand in marriage. She agreed to marry any man who could beat her in a race, but with the cruel condition that anyone who tried and failed would be killed.
Of course many tried, failed and died as a consequence. But Hippomenes prayed to Aphrodite for help to win the maiden's hand and Aphrodite sympathetically gave him some golden apples to distract Atalanta in the fateful race. Hippomenes then wins his bride.
"But the lovers were so full of their own happiness that they forgot to pay due honor to Venus; and the goddess was provoked at their ingratitude. She caused them to give offence to Cybele. That powerful goddess was not to be insulted with impunity. She took from them their human form and turned them into animals of characters resembling their own: of the huntress-heroine, triumphing in the blood of her lovers, she made a lioness, and of her lord and master a lion, and yoked them to her car, where they are still to be seen in all representations, in statuary or painting, of the goddess Cybele." - Bulfinch's Mythology, Chapter XVIII
Their divine fate to become lion and lioness again appears to be a fitting end (perfect death) for such consumate hunters, although I doubt Atalanta and Hippomenes would find the thought of pulling Cybele's cart for all eternity particularly appealing!
These heroic deeds were retold again and again, not only in poem and song, but in imagery on countless statues, reliefs, vases, bronzes and jewelry from the ancient Greek world. You can see over 100 examples of these works from the 6th - 1st centuries BC in the exhibit Heroes: Mortals and Myths in Ancient Greece, now on display at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland until January 3, 2010. The exhibition will then move to the Frist Center for the Visual Arts in Nashville, Tennessee where it will be on display from January 29 – April 25, 2010.
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