Waging War in Ancient Egypt

“When he charged me, I shot him, my arrow sticking in his neck. He screamed. He fell on his nose. I slew him with his axe. I raised my war cry over his back, while every Asiatic shouted.” – Story of Sinuhe.

Land of Borders

Egypt, with its rich strip of agricultural land following the snaking course of the Nile, is a land of naturally-occurring frontiers. To the east and west it is bounded by deserts; to the north, the Mediterranean; to the south, the first cataract of the Nile. Geographical isolation helped safeguard Egypt from invasion, but the violation of these borders also provided its rulers with the official justification of military aggression.

Throughout the Old Kingdom (2686-2160 BC), Egypt mounted raids and expeditions against its neighbours, particularly Nubia and Libya, to acquire resources such as gold, building materials, cattle and, of course, slaves. These campaigns were brutal, burning the enemies' settlements and slaughtering or deporting their population. They could also be highly profitable – the Palermo Stone records that one force sent to Nubia by Sneferu returned with 7,000 captives and 200,000 head of cattle.

The Middle Kingdom

Following a period of political fragmentation and endemic civil war, Egypt entered the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC). It was a period which saw the pharaohs move from a policy of sporadic raiding and eradication to conquest and permanent occupation, again focusing on Nubia where the Egyptians built and manned an impressive network of forts to counter the growing kingdom of Kerma.

However, while Egypt had a long history of waging warfare behind her, she did not yet possess a standing army. True, the pharaohs had always maintained a royal bodyguard, but the bulk of fighting men were either mercenaries or local levies. The former were largely drawn from Nubia, although some hailed from Libya, while the latter were recruited – willingly or otherwise – by regional governors.

So, how would we expect a typical soldier of one of these Old and Middle Kingdom armies to be equipped? By the standards of the later Greeks and Romans, he’d be considered a light infantryman. His primary armament is a single-arched bow or a spear, augmented perhaps by a dagger or axe for close-in work. Our man has no body armour to speak of – indeed, he wears only a loincloth – but he does carry a large, if rather cumbersome, cow-hide shield. New military technology was introduced over time, but the advances were not dramatic. This was soon to change.

The Hyksos Invasion

Around 1650BC, Egypt was invaded by a Palestinian people known as the Hyksos, who ruled the northern part of the country for over a century from their capital of Avaris. Much as later dynasties professed horror at the thought of foreigners overrunning Egypt, they certainly profited from the comparatively brief period of Hyksos rule in the long term – especially in terms of military technology.

Indeed, the evolution of the Egyptian way of war during the Second Intermediate Period, as the Hyksos occupation is rather unromantically known, is startling when compared to the relative stolidity of the preceding Old and Middle Kingdoms. When power returns to Egyptian hands in the shape of the 18th dynasty, soldiers sport protective jackets, lighter, more usable shields, compound bows with far greater range than the old single-arched weapons, and scimitar-like swords called khepesh.

Most important of all, the Egyptians adopted (and adapted) the chariot. Until now, Pharaonic armies have been exclusively infantry-based, but the arrival of the two-wheeled light chariot gives them a powerful mobile weapons platform. Crewed by a driver and a soldier equipped with a bow, spear and shield, these manoeuvrable vehicles rapidly became one of the most valuable weapons in the Pharoah’s arsenal.

Paid in Slaves

Revitalised, greatly expanded and organised along more professional lines, the army of the New Kingdom dropped its barbaric image and soon became acceptable as a vocation for the middle classes. The army still employed mercenaries – now mostly Asiatics – but it had now also become a career for Egyptians.

The autobiography of Ahmose, a soldier in the armies that eventually drove the Hyksos from Egypt, gives us an account of the rewards that the successful warrior might expect from a grateful king: “Then Avaris was sacked. I brought away from there as plunder one man and three women, a total of four people. His Majesty gave them to me as slaves. Then Sharuhen was besieged for three years. His Majesty plundered it. I brought away from there as plunder two women and a hand. The gold of valour was presented to me and, lo, I was given slaves as plunder.”

Like their subjects, New Kingdom pharaohs seemed to take to warfare like never before. Apart from the almost ritualised campaign against poor old Nubia that most new rulers embarked on when they ascended to the throne, Egypt’s scope had widened. Emerging as an international superpower alongside the likes of the Hittites and Hurrians, she was eager to maintain her sphere of influence in the Levant – a stance that in the hands of a bellicose pharaoh could easily result in empire-building.

End of an Era

Such a ruler was Thutmose III, whose spoils from the battle of Megiddo and the subsequent peace settlement amounted to 200 suits of armour; almost 900 chariots, including two covered in gold; more than 2,000 horses and 25,000 livestock. Another was that peerless self-publicist Rameses II, whose clash with the Hittite king at Qadesh involved around 66,000 infantrymen and no less that 5,000 chariots.

Rameses’ successors, however, were forced to confront an enemy on Egyptian soil. And although the Sea People were eventually defeated, Egypt was again looking inwards, cradled once more by her natural borders. The military class remained, but the pharaohs had nowhere to lead them. Like Egypt, the army had passed its zenith.
 

Images by Sandro Vannini. All rights reserved.

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About The Author

David Axbey

Last three pieces by this author:

Greek Mythology

Davo is a London-based journalist with an MA in Classics. When not writing about ancient history, he enjoys movies, manga and baseball. Rumours that he was raised by wolves are unfounded.