Egypt And The Era of Discovery

1922 was a time of great upheaval for in Egypt. In February of that year, Britain declared the end of its protectorate, which had been formally established in 1882. Yet British influence on Egyptian affairs was to remain strong for the next three decades – the legacy of an imperial adventure that had not always gone to plan.

Foreign Powers in Egypt

Since the Ottoman conquest of 1517, Egypt had nominally been under the control of the Sultan in Constantinople. But 1805 saw the rise of a new dynasty of Egyptian rulers who paid only lip service to the Ottoman Empire. These new rulers – adopting the title of ‘Khedive’ – set about modernising Egypt and developing cotton as the country’s primary staple. An increasingly prosperous Egypt soon caught the attention of the imperial powers of Europe, including France and Britain.

In the 1860s, these powers joined with the Egyptian government to construct the Suez Canal. As the gateway to India and the East, the canal was a highly important strategic asset. Unfortunately, the Egyptian ruler, Ismail Pasha, was forced to sell his stake in the project as a result of ballooning debt. The value of Egyptian cotton had fallen following the revival of the American cotton industry after the Civil War, and Ismail could no longer pay off foreign loans.

The move would have far-reaching consequences. Britain stepped in to buy Ismail’s shares and take over the canal, while Egypt found itself in hock to the European powers. France and Britain effectively took control of the country’s finances.

Resentment of foreign powers led to a growing nationalist movement. In 1882, a general named Ahmed Urabi campaigned for the dismissal of Turkish army officers and the establishment of a parliamentary assembly. Riots broke out across Egypt in support of the reformers, and the British government intervened with an invasion. The fledgling movement was quelled and Britain declared Egypt a protectorate.

British Rule

From the beginning, British politicians were uncertain of what they hoped to achieve in Egypt. The protectorate was created to safeguard British interests in the country – primarily Egypt’s debts and the Suez Canal. Although the occupation was initially thought of as a short-term measure, British troops would remain in Egypt until 1956.

In practice, the British government controlled Egypt’s foreign affairs, while the khedive, Tawfik Pasha, was left to run domestic issues. The Egyptian cabinet was guided by British advisers, but there was no attempt to establish a formal colonial administration.

The economy steadily improved under the British protectorate, although Egyptians complained of high taxes. There were also efforts to upgrade the country’s infrastructure, with the building of new roads and bridges. Nonetheless, the Nationalist movement continued to spread behind the scenes.

The First World War

The end of the protectorate was precipitated by the First World War. In 1914, the title of Khedive was changed to Sultan to finally repudiate the rule of the Ottoman emperor, who had allied with the Germans in the war.

British actions in Egypt during the conflict caused widespread discontent, including the requisition of cotton at below-market prices, the garrisoning of troops on Egyptian soil and the conscription of labour.

1919 Revolution

In 1919, a new atmosphere of self-determination prevailed, fostered by the doctrine of President Woodrow Wilson. Delegations from different nations attended the Paris Peace Conference to appeal for the acknowledgement of their rights.

An Egyptian deputation planned to attend the conference and put forward its demands for independence. Under this plan, Britain would be allowed to continue supervising the canal and servicing the national debt. However, the delegation was arrested and deported to Malta, sparking a campaign of civil disobedience across Egypt.

As the demonstrations became more violent, Britain was in danger of losing control. The delegation was eventually allowed to proceed to Paris and negotiations began to end the protectorate. In February 1922 – nine months before Howard Carter opened Tutankhamun’s tomb – Britain ended the protectorate, although it reserved the right to protect foreign assets in the country.

Archaeology in the 1920s

Whilst the Great War had disrupted archaeological work, expeditions resumed soon after the conflict and continued despite the instability of the time. The pre-eminent Egyptologist Flinders Petrie conducted his final tours between 1919 and 1924.

Howard Carter’s discovery in 1922, the most famous of all finds, was also significant in that it was reported widely around the world. Avid newspaper stories and film footage helped usher in a new era of popular interest in Egyptology.
Other important finds of the decade included the Amarna statues found at Karnak in 1925 and the Library of Kenherkhepshef at Thebes.

The inter-war period also saw a change in the way finds were regulated. The Egyptian Antiquities Service, under the leadership of Pierre Lacau, imposed greater controls over archaeologists, who had to surrender their best finds to the Egyptian National Museum. The era of the ‘free-for-all’ was over. Archaeologists – whether they liked it or not – had to put the cause of expanding historical knowledge ahead of personal gain.

The Muslim Brotherhood

In 1928, a small group of Egyptian workers tired of British control in the Suez region joined forces under the leadership of a schoolteacher-cum-preacher named Hassan al-Banna. The group formed the Muslim Brotherhood, which was to become the largest Islamic political movement in the Middle East. The brotherhood’s support would not become widespread until much later, but its formation marked a significant moment in the politics of the region.

The 1920s was a decade of note in many ways for Egypt. It seems that Egypt's ancient, hidden treasures weren't the only part of the country in the grip of British hands. But the archeological findings of the British in the 1920s perhaps helped Egypt rediscover of its heritage, and regain control of the country.

Images by Sandro Vannini. All rights reserved.

Written by Johnathan Yeomans.

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